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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 379 records · Page 21
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1993

Flow resolution and domain of influence in rarefied hypersonic blunt-body flows

The study assesses the effects of the upstream domain size and grid resolution upon flow properties and body aerodynamics computed for rarefied flows over cold blunt bodies with a direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) particle method. Empirical correlations are suggested for aerodynamic coefficients for two-dimensional flows past a perpendicular flat plate. Free-stream parameters which were varied in the study include the Mach number, Knudsen number, surface temperature, and intermolecular potential. Insufficient grid resolution leads to overprediction of aerodynamic heating and forces in the DSMC method. Solution accuracy correlates well with the Reynolds number defined at the wall temperature and the stagnation mean free path relative to the cell dimension. Insufficient upstream domain size in the DSMC method leads to overprediction of heating and drag. Errors in aerodynamic coefficients correlate well with the distance ahead of the body where flow temperature reaches half of its peak value. Simulation of a hard-sphere gas is more sensitive to grid resolution, while simulation of a Maxwell gas is more sensitive to upstream domain size.

Haas, Brian L.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Sharp decline of dust events induces regional wetting over arid and semi-arid Northwest China in the NCAR Community atmosphere model

Abstract Multiple lines of observational evidence have indicated a significant wetting over the arid and semi-arid Northwest China (NWC) during recent decades, coinciding with a simultaneous sharp decline of dust events. Although recent studies have attributed NWC wetting to different anthropogenic and natural forcings, the mechanisms are not definitive and the regional wetting has been greatly underestimated in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project historical simulations. Based on sensitivity experiments with different dust emission amounts using the NCAR Community Atmospheric Model version 5 (CAM5), here we find that decreasing dusts exert significant impacts on mixed-phase clouds through reducing the concentration of ice nucleating particles, increase the NWC precipitation and thus induce regional wetting through enhancing convection precipitation. A possible convection invigoration mechanism whereby the atmospheric vertical temperature gradient and convective instability are strengthened by reduced dusts, leading to convection invigoration and increased precipitation. These results are reinforced by simulations over the dust region in North Africa where mixed-phase and ice clouds are rare and reduced dusts do not increase precipitation. This study highlights the possible mechanism of dust-ice cloud interactions in recent NWC wetting and future regional climate change.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

The Strong Impact of Weak Horizontal Convergence on Continental Shallow Convection

Idealized large-eddy simulation (LES) is a basic tool for studying three-dimensional turbulence in the planetary boundary layer. LES is capable of providing benchmark solutions for parameterization development efforts. However, real small-scale atmospheric flows develop in heterogeneous and transient environments with locally varying vertical motions inherent to open multiscale interactive dynamical systems. These variations are often too subtle to detect them by state-of-the-art remote and in situ measurements, and are typically excluded from idealized simulations. The present study addresses the impact of weak [i.e., O(10-6) s-1] short-lived low-level large-scale convergence/divergence perturbations on continental shallow convection. The results show a strong response of shallow nonprecipitating convection to the applied weak large-scale dynamical forcing. Evolutions of CAPE, mean liquid water path, and cloud-top heights are significantly affected by the imposed convergence/divergence. In contrast, evolving cloud-base properties, such as the area coverage and mass flux, are only weakly affected. To contrast those impacts with microphysical sensitivity, the baseline simulations are perturbed assuming different observationally based cloud droplet number concentrations and thus different rainfall. For the tested range of microphysical perturbations, the imposed convergence/divergence provides significantly larger impact than changes in the cloud microphysics. Simulation results presented here provide a stringent test for convection parameterizations, especially important for large-scale models progressing toward resolving some nonhydrostatic effects.

Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences↗
DOE OSTI2024

Data and scripts associated with the manuscript "A Hydrogeophysical Framework to Assess Infiltration During a Simulated Ecosystem-Scale Flooding Experiment”

This package contains the data and scripts used in "A hydrogeophysical framework to assess infiltration during a simulated ecosystem-scale flooding experiment" (Adebayo et al., 2023). The Geophysics folder contains two subfolders containing Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) datasets acquired between August 23 and August 26, 2021. The GPR subfolder contains raw data (Tempest_Project.GPZ) and processed results using the Sensors and Software EKKO Project software. The ERI subfolder contains two additional subfolders named Static and Timelapse. The Static subfolder contains background resistivity datasets acquired before infiltration, both raw and inverted results using the ResIpy code. The Timelapse subfolder contains repeated resistivity datasets acquired during infiltration on two profiles, along with raw and inverted results using the ResIpy code. The Flow model folder contains ATS model simulation files. The Geophysics-informed subfolder contains simulation datasets for two profiles generated using information from the geophysics data. The National_database-informed subfolder contains simulation datasets for two profiles generated using information from a national soil database. Each subfolder contains initial simulation results, multiple ensembles, and final simulation files. The Sensitivity_analysis folder contains the observation files exported from the flow model, notebooks used in running the code, and sensitivity analysis results showing the sensitivity of different parameters over a 48-hour period. We used mutual information-based global sensitivity analysis for the sensitivity analysis, following Jiang et al., 2022. This study shows a novel approach that integrates geophysical data with hydrological modeling to understand subsurface flow during coastal flooding.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2021

All-sky search in early O3 LIGO data for continuous gravitational-wave signals from unknown neutron stars in binary systems

Rapidly spinning neutron stars are promising sources of continuous gravitational waves. Detecting such a signal would allow probing of the physical properties of matter under extreme conditions. A significant fraction of the known pulsar population belongs to binary systems. Searching for unknown neutron stars in binary systems requires specialized algorithms to address unknown orbital frequency modulations. We present a search for continuous gravitational waves emitted by neutron stars in binary systems in early data from the third observing run of the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors using the semicoherent, GPU-accelerated, binaryskyhough pipeline. The search analyzes the most sensitive frequency band of the LIGO detectors, 50–300 Hz. Binary orbital parameters are split into four regions, comprising orbital periods of three to 45 days and projected semimajor axes of two to 40 light seconds. No detections are reported. We estimate the sensitivity of the search using simulated continuous wave signals, achieving the most sensitive results to date across the analyzed parameter space.

Gravitation↗
NASA NTRS2003

Evaluation of Two Unique Side Stick Controllers in a Fixed-Base Flight Simulator

A handling qualities analysis has been performed on two unique side stick controllers in a fixed-base F-18 flight simulator. Each stick, which uses a larger range of motion than is common for similar controllers, has a moving elbow cup that accommodates movement of the entire arm for control. The sticks are compared to the standard center stick in several typical fighter aircraft tasks. Several trends are visible in the time histories, pilot ratings, and pilot comments. The aggressive pilots preferred the center stick, because the side sticks are underdamped, causing overshoots and oscillations when large motions are executed. The less aggressive pilots preferred the side sticks, because of the smooth motion and low breakout forces. The aggressive pilots collectively gave the worst ratings, probably because of increased sensitivity of the simulator (compared to the actual F-18 aircraft), which can cause pilot-induced oscillations when aggressive inputs are made. Overall, the elbow cup is not a positive feature, because using the entire arm for control inhibits precision. Pilots had difficulty measuring their performance, particularly during the offset landing task, and tended to overestimate.

Mayer, Jann↗
DOE OSTI2023

Region and cloud regime dependence of parametric sensitivity in E3SM atmosphere model

Abstract The Department of Energy (DOE)’s Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM), including its atmosphere model (EAM), has many relatively new features. In a previous study we conducted a systematic parametric sensitivity analysis for EAM based on short, perturbed parameter ensemble (PPE) simulations, mainly focusing on global mean climate features and metrics. While parameter values in global climate models are generally invariant in space and time, model response to parameters perturbation may vary by regions and climate regimes, which motivates the need to better understand the EAM model behaviors and physics at regional scale and process level. In this study, using the same set of PPE simulations and a similar sensitivity analysis framework, we identify parameters that cause largest sensitivities over different regions and compare model responses in fast atmospheric processes to the parameters across different cloud regimes for several important cloud-related fidelity metrics. We find that cloud forcing has opposite response to some parameters over mid-latitude vs. tropical land. We also analyze how the parametric sensitivity varies as stratocumulus transitions to shallow convection and to deep convection over ocean. Low cloud forcing and shortwave cloud forcing in the subtropical eastern Pacific are most sensitive to the parameters controlling the width of the probability density function (PDF) of the subgrid vertical velocity ( w’ ) ( gamma ) and the damping of the w’ skewness ( c8 ) near the coast but become more sensitive to the parameter affecting the damping of the w’ variance ( c1 ) further offshore. Detailed interpretation of the spatial dependence of parametric sensitivity is provided. We also investigate how the parametric sensitivity evolves with prediction duration. This study improves our process-level understanding of cloud physics and parameterization and provides insights for developing more advanced regime-aware parameterization schemes in global climate model.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

ETHOS: An automated framework to generate multi-fidelity constitutive data tables and propagate uncertainties to hydrodynamic simulations

Accurate constitutive data, such as equations of state and plasma transport coefficients, are necessary for reliable hydrodynamic simulations of plasma systems such as fusion targets, planets, and stars. Here, we develop a framework for automatically generating transport-coefficient tables using a parameterized model that incorporates data from both high-fidelity sources (e.g., density functional theory calculations and reference experiments) and lower-fidelity sources (e.g., average-atom and analytic models). The framework incorporates uncertainties from these multi-fidelity sources, generating ensembles of optimally diverse tables that are suitable for uncertainty quantification of hydrodynamic simulations. We illustrate the utility of the framework with magnetohydrodynamic simulations of magnetically launched flyer plates, which are used to measure material properties in pulsed-power experiments. We explore how changes in the uncertainties assigned to the multi-fidelity data sources propagate to changes in simulation outputs and find that our simulations are most sensitive to uncertainties near the melting transition. The presented framework enables computationally efficient uncertainty quantification that readily incorporates new high-fidelity measurements or calculations and identifies plasma regimes where additional data will have high impact.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

DECOVALEX-2023: Task F2 Salt Final Report

The subject of Task F of DECOVALEX-2023 concerns performance assessment modelling of radioactive waste disposal in deep mined repositories. The primary objectives of Task F are to build confidence in the models, methods, and software used for performance assessment (PA) of deep geologic nuclear waste repositories, and/or to bring to the fore additional research and development needed to improve PA methodologies. In Task F2- (salt), these objectives have been accomplished through staged development and comparison of the models and methods used by participating teams in their PA frameworks. Coupled-process submodels and deterministic simulations of the entire PA model for a reference scenario for waste disposal in domal salt have been conducted. The task specification has been updated continuously since the initiation of the project to reflect the staged development of the conceptual repository model and performance metrics. Thermal, hydrological, mechanical, and chemical properties of individual components of the engineered and natural system were chosen for relevance by participating teams. The salt reference case system was characterized using data and measurements collected at relevant underground research laboratories (URLs), field sites, and simulation results from teams with specialized modelling capability. Participating teams made a wide range of model assumptions from compartmentalized networks to full 3D models of the salt formation. No single contributed model includes full-fidelity representation of all the features, events, and processes (FEPs) detailed in the task specification, but almost all features and processes are represented in at least one model. Despite differences in the modelling strategies developed by participating teams, all models indicate that salt compaction and radionuclide diffusion are key processes in the repository, and for the FEPs and model scenario considered, little of the disposed radionuclides will migrate beyond the repository seal over the 100,000 year simulations. In general, the model output quantities have the largest differences over the short term and near the waste. The models tend to be more similar further from waste and at later time. Disparities between the models are believed to be due to differing simplifications from the task specification, some of which are chosen simplifications to reduce complexity, and some are restrictions imposed by the modelling tools. A second round of this task has been accepted for DECOVALEX-2027 in conjunction with Task F1 on crystalline PA modelling. The future round includes waste package heating, improved modelling of salt creep closure, additional comparisons of coupled-process sub-models, and the impact of repository engineering design on radionuclide migration in the repository. Participants will also propose and finalize a set of uncertain inputs for the reference case simulations, propagate these uncertainties in a set of realizations, and conduct sensitivity analyses on the simulation results.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2022

LGM Paleoclimate Constraints Inform Cloud Parameterizations and Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity in CESM2

The Community Earth System Model version 2 (CESM2) simulates a high equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS > 5°C) and a Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) that is substantially colder than proxy temperatures. In this study, we examine the role of cloud parameterizations in simulating the LGM cooling in CESM2. Through substituting different versions of cloud schemes in the atmosphere model, we attribute the excessive LGM cooling to the new CESM2 schemes of cloud microphysics and ice nucleation. Further exploration suggests that removing an inappropriate limiter on cloud ice number (NoNimax) and decreasing the time-step size (substepping) in cloud microphysics largely eliminate the excessive LGM cooling. NoNimax produces a more physically consistent treatment of mixed-phase clouds, which leads to an increase in cloud ice content and a weaker shortwave cloud feedback over mid-to-high latitudes and the Southern Hemisphere subtropics. Microphysical substepping further weakens the shortwave cloud feedback. Based on NoNimax and microphysical substepping, we have developed a paleoclimate-calibrated CESM2 (PaleoCalibr), which simulates well the observed twentieth century warming and spatial characteristics of key cloud and climate variables. PaleoCalibr has a lower ECS (∼4°C) and a 20% weaker aerosol-cloud interaction than CESM2. PaleoCalibr represents a physically more consistent treatment of cloud microphysics than CESM2 and is a valuable tool in climate change studies, especially when a large climate forcing is involved. Our study highlights the unique value of paleoclimate constraints in informing the cloud parameterizations and ultimately the future climate projection.

equilibrium climate sensitivity↗
DOE OSTI2021

Sensitivity of a Subject-specific Ankle Sprain Simulation to Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Biomechanical Factors

Ankle sprains are the most common musculoskeletal injury in sport and military activity, despite existing prophylactic strategies. The purpose of this report was to develop a probabilistic simulation of lateral ankle sprains during single-limb drop landing, towards accelerating innovation in ankle sprain prevention. A deterministic, subject-specific musculoskeletal model was extended with automation and probabilistic distributions on sprain-related biomechanical factors. Probabilistic simulations were generated using traditional Monte Carlo techniques and the advanced mean value method, a more computationally-efficient approach. Predicted distributions of peak ankle joint rotations, velocities, and moments borne by supporting passive structures agreed favorably with the deterministic model and with reports of real sprain biomechanics. Parameter sensitivities identified that predictions were most strongly influenced by drop height, subtalar joint posture at contact, invertor/evertor co-activation, and passive ankle stiffness. The advanced mean value method predicted confidence bounds comparable to a 1000-trial Monte Carlo simulation, and required only 14 model evaluations and 4-min processing time. The extended probabilistic simulation may be useful to virtually test new prophylactic strategies for ankle sprains, and is made available for open-source use (https://simtk.org/projects/sprain-sim).

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Numerical challenges in modeling gravothermal collapse in Self-Interacting Dark Matter halos

When dark matter has a large cross section for self scattering, halos can undergo a process known as gravothermal core collapse, where the inner core rapidly increases in density and temperature. To date, several methods have been used to implement Self-Interacting Dark Matter (SIDM) in N-body codes, but there has been no systematic study of these different methods or their accuracy in the core-collapse phase. In this paper, we compare three different numerical implementations of SIDM, including the standard methods from the GIZMO and Arepo codes, by simulating idealized dwarf halos undergoing significant dark matter self interactions (σ/m = 50 cm 2 /g). When simulating these halos, we also vary the mass resolution, time-stepping criteria, and gravitational force-softening scheme. The various SIDM methods lead to distinct differences in a halo's evolution during the core-collapse phase, as each results in spurious scattering rate differences and energy gains/losses. The use of adaptive force softening for gravity can lead to numerical heating that artificially accelerates core collapse, while an insufficiently small simulation time step can cause core evolution to stall or completely reverse. Additionally, particle numbers must be large enough to ensure that the simulated halos are not sensitive to noise in the initial conditions. Even for the highest-resolution simulations tested in this study (10 6 particles per halo), we find that variations of order 10% in collapse time are still present. Here, the results of this work underscore the sensitivity of SIDM modeling on the choice of numerical implementation and motivate a careful study of how these results generalize to halos in a cosmological context.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2020

An experimental and kinetic modeling study of cyclopentane and dimethyl ether blends

Cyclopentane is a suitable naphthene, or cycloalkane, in a palette for multi-component gasoline surrogate fuels due to its presence in market fuels and its relevance to alkyl substituted cyclopentanes also present. However, the previous oxidation studies of cyclopentane have primarily focused on neat mixtures. Blending cyclopentane with dimethyl ether in this work therefore serves to inform our understanding of, and improve predictive models for, multi-component mixtures. Here, the auto-ignition of cyclopentane/dimethyl ether blends was studied in a high-pressure shock tube and in a rapid compression machine. A wide range of temperatures (650 – 1350 K) and elevated pressures of 20 and 40 bar were studied at equivalence ratios of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 in air for two blending ratios (30/70 and 70/30 mole% cyclopentane/di-methyl ether mixtures). A detailed kinetic model for cyclopentane was revised to capture the measured ignition delay times and apparent heat release rates in this study. Literature ignition delay time, jet-stirred reactor, and laminar burning velocity measurements of neat cyclopentane were used as additional validation. Improvements to the kinetic model were based on recent literature studies related to sub-models including cyclopentene and cyclopentadiene which allowed the removal of previous local rate-constant optimizations. Low temperature reactivity of cyclopentane was found to be controlled by the branching ratio between concerted elimination of HO͘ 2 and the strained formation of Q&#775OOH radicals in agreement with previous studies. In this study, the low branching ratio of Q&#775OOH formation increases the influence of a competing consumption pathway for cyclopentyl-peroxy (CPTO͘ 2 J) radicals. The sensitivity of the simulated ignition delay times to the formation of cyclopentyl hydroperoxide (CPTO 2 H), from CPTO͘ 2 J and HO͘ 2 , is discussed. The current model is used to analyze the influence of dimethyl ether on the reactivity of cyclopentane in the context of previous literature studies of dimethyl ether binary blends with ethanol and toluene.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Machine-learning techniques for model-independent searches in dijet final states

Anomaly detection methods used in a recent search for new phenomena by CMS at the CERN LHC are presented. The methods use machine learning to detect anomalous jets produced in the decay of new massive particles without depending on a specific theory model. The effectiveness of these approaches in enhancing sensitivity to various simulated signal samples is studied and compared using data collected in proton–proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV. In an example analysis, the capabilities of anomaly detection methods are further demonstrated by identifying large-radius jets consistent with Lorentz-boosted hadronically decaying top quarks in a model-agnostic framework.

CMS↗
DOE OSTI2020

An Assessment of the Drag Models in the Case of a Shock Interacting With a Fixed Bed of Point Particles

Abstract In this work, three-dimensional Euler–Lagrange (EL) point-particle simulations of a shock wave interacting with a fixed bed of particles are carried out. The results from the particle-resolved (PR) simulations are used to assess the performance of the point-particle drag models during short time scales. We demonstrate that in a one-way coupled regime, the point-particle simulations recover the dominant gas dynamic features of the flow and are in a good agreement with the exact Riemann solution of a shock traveling through a sudden area contraction. Although the PR simulations are inviscid, we show that a dissipative drag is necessary to predict the mean behavior of the gas. As a model for the inviscid shock-induced (SI) drag two different models are presented in lieu of the quasi-steady drag. Finally, two-way coupled simulations are performed at four different particle volume fractions {0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25} and three different incident shock Mach numbers {1.22, 1.66, 3.0} and compared against the data from PR inviscid simulations. At a lower Mach number (1.22), averaged flow quantities from the two-way coupled simulations agree well with the PR simulations. As the Mach number increases, we observe that the discrepancies between the point-particle and the PR simulations grow. A sensitivity analysis of the drag models involved reveals a strong influence of the inviscid-unsteady force on the gas quantities especially in the case of a strong shock interacting with a dense bed of particles. The use of Mach correlation beyond the subcritical regime coupled with the model for volume fraction correction is identified as a probable cause for the additional drag.

Engineering↗
DOE OSTI2023

Changing temperature profiles and the risk of dengue outbreaks

As temperatures change worldwide, the pattern and competency of disease vectors will change, altering the global distribution of both the burden of infectious disease and the risk of the emergence of those diseases into new regions. To evaluate the risk of potential summer dengue outbreaks triggered by infected travelers under various climate scenarios, we develop an SEIR-type model, run numerical simulations, and conduct sensitivity analyses under a range of temperature profiles. Our model extends existing theoretical frameworks for studying dengue dynamics by introducing temperature dependence of two key parameters: the mosquito extrinsic incubation period and the lifespan of mosquitoes, which empirical data suggests are both highly temperature dependent. We find that changing temperature significantly alters dengue risk in an inverted U-shape, with temperatures in the range 27-31°C producing the highest risk. As temperatures increase beyond 31°C, the determinants of dengue risk begin to shift from mosquito biting rate and carrying capacity to the duration of the human infectious period, suggesting that changing temperatures not only alter dengue risk but also the potential efficacy of control measures. To illustrate the role of spatial and temporal temperature heterogeneity, we select five US cities where the primary dengue vector, the mosquito Aedes aegypti , has been observed, and which have had dengue cases in the past: Los Angeles, Houston, Miami, Brownsville, and Phoenix. Our analysis suggests that an increase of 3°C leads to an approximate doubling of the risk of dengue in Los Angeles and Houston, but a reduction of risk in Miami, Brownsville, and Phoenix due to extreme heat.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

On the Response of a Herschel–Bulkley Fluid Due to a Moving Plate

In this paper, we study the boundary-layer flow of a Herschel–Bulkley fluid due to a moving plate; this problem has been experimentally investigated by others, where the fluid was assumed to be Carbopol, which has similar properties to cement. The computational fluid dynamics finite volume method from the open-source toolbox/library OpenFOAM is used on structured quad grids to solve the mass and the linear momentum conservation equations using the solver “overInterDyMFoam” customized with non-Newtonian viscosity libraries. The governing equations are solved numerically by using regularization methods in the context of the overset meshing technique. The results indicate that there is a good comparison between the experimental data and the simulations. The boundary layer thicknesses are predicted within the uncertainties of the measurements. The simulations indicate strong sensitivities to the rheological properties of the fluid.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Expected Gamma-Ray Burst Detection Rates and Redshift Distributions for the BlackCAT CubeSat Mission

We report the results of an extensive set of simulations exploring the sensitivity of the BlackCAT CubeSat to long-duration gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). BlackCAT is a NASA APRA-funded CubeSat mission for the detection and real-time subarcminute localization of high-redshift (z ≳ 3.5) GRBs. Thanks to their luminous and long-lived afterglow emissions, GRBs are uniquely valuable probes of high-redshift star-forming galaxies and the intergalactic medium. In addition, each detected GRB with a known redshift serves to localize a region of high-redshift star formation in three dimensions, enabling deep follow-on searches for host galaxies and associated local and large-scale structures. We explore two distinct models for the GRB redshift distribution and luminosity function, both consistent with Swift observations. We find that, for either model, BlackCAT is expected to detect a mean of 42 bursts per year on orbit, with 6.7% to 10% of these at z > 3.5. BlackCAT bursts will be localized to an r 90 ≲ 55'' precision and reported to the community within seconds. Due to the mission orbit and pointing scheme, bursts will be located in the night sky and well placed for deep multiwavelength follow-up observations. BlackCAT is on schedule to achieve launch readiness in 2025.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗