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At least 379 records · Page 21
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2013

DENSITY AND ECCENTRICITY OF KEPLER PLANETS

We analyze the transit timing variations (TTV) obtained by the Kepler mission for 22 sub-Jovian planet pairs (19 published, 3 new) that lie close to mean motion resonances. We find that the TTV phases for most of these pairs lie close to zero, consistent with an eccentricity distribution that has a very low root-mean-squared value of e {approx} 0.01; but about a quarter of the pairs possess much higher eccentricities, up to e {approx} 0.1-0.4. For the low-eccentricity pairs, we are able to statistically remove the effect of eccentricity to obtain planet masses from TTV data. These masses, together with those measured by radial velocity, yield a best-fit mass-radius relation M {approx} 3 M{sub Circled-Plus }(R/R{sub Circled-Plus }). This corresponds to a constant surface escape velocity of {approx}20 km s{sup -1}. We separate the planets into two distinct groups: ''mid-sized'' (those greater than 3 R{sub Circled-Plus }) and 'compact' (those smaller). All mid-sized planets are found to be less dense than water and therefore must contain extensive H/He envelopes that are comparable in mass to that of their cores. We argue that these planets have been significantly sculpted by photoevaporation. Surprisingly, mid-sized planets, a minority among Kepler candidates, are discovered exclusively around stars more massive than 0.8 M{sub Sun }. The compact planets, on the other hand, are often denser than water. Combining our density measurements with those from radial velocity studies, we find that hotter compact planets tend to be denser, with the hottest ones reaching rock density. Moreover, hotter planets tend to be smaller in size. These results can be explained if the compact planets are made of rocky cores overlaid with a small amount of hydrogen, {<=}1% in mass, with water contributing little to their masses or sizes. Photoevaporation has exposed bare rocky cores in cases of the hottest planets. Our conclusion that these planets are likely not water worlds contrasts with some previous studies. While mid-sized planets most likely accreted their hydrogen envelope from the proto-planetary disks, compact planets could have obtained theirs via either accretion or outgassing. The presence of the two distinct classes suggests that 3 R{sub Circled-Plus} could be identified as the dividing line between 'hot Neptunes' and 'super-Earths'.

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DOE OSTI2013

ARE THE KEPLER NEAR-RESONANCE PLANET PAIRS DUE TO TIDAL DISSIPATION?

The multiple-planet systems discovered by the Kepler mission show an excess of planet pairs with period ratios just wide of exact commensurability for first-order resonances like 2:1 and 3:2. In principle, these planet pairs could have both resonance angles associated with the resonance librating if the orbital eccentricities are sufficiently small, because the width of first-order resonances diverges in the limit of vanishingly small eccentricity. We consider a widely held scenario in which pairs of planets were captured into first-order resonances by migration due to planet-disk interactions, and subsequently became detached from the resonances, due to tidal dissipation in the planets. In the context of this scenario, we find a constraint on the ratio of the planet's tidal dissipation function and Love number that implies that some of the Kepler planets are likely solid. However, tides are not strong enough to move many of the planet pairs to the observed separations, suggesting that additional dissipative processes are at play.

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DOE OSTI2013

THE ANTICORRELATED NATURE OF THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ECLIPSE TIMING VARIATIONS FOR THE KEPLER CONTACT BINARIES

We report a study of the eclipse timing variations in contact binary systems, using long-cadence lightcurves from the Kepler archive. As a first step, observed minus calculated (O - C) curves were produced for both the primary and secondary eclipses of some 2000 Kepler binaries. We find {approx}390 short-period binaries with O - C curves that exhibit (1) random walk-like variations or quasi-periodicities, with typical amplitudes of {+-}200-300 s, and (2) anticorrelations between the primary and secondary eclipse timing variations. We present a detailed analysis and results for 32 of these binaries with orbital periods in the range of 0.35 {+-} 0.05 days. The anticorrelations observed in their O - C curves cannot be explained by a model involving mass transfer, which, among other things, requires implausibly high rates of {approx}0.01 M{sub Sun} yr{sup -1}. We show that the anticorrelated behavior, the amplitude of the O - C delays, and the overall random walk-like behavior can be explained by the presence of a starspot that is continuously visible around the orbit and slowly changes its longitude on timescales of weeks to months. The quasi-periods of {approx}50-200 days observed in the O - C curves suggest values for k, the coefficient of the latitude dependence of the stellar differential rotation, of {approx}0.003-0.013.

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DOE OSTI2013

PLANET HUNTERS. V. A CONFIRMED JUPITER-SIZE PLANET IN THE HABITABLE ZONE AND 42 PLANET CANDIDATES FROM THE KEPLER ARCHIVE DATA

We report the latest Planet Hunter results, including PH2 b, a Jupiter-size (R{sub PL} = 10.12 ± 0.56 R{sub ⊕}) planet orbiting in the habitable zone of a solar-type star. PH2 b was elevated from candidate status when a series of false-positive tests yielded a 99.9% confidence level that transit events detected around the star KIC 12735740 had a planetary origin. Planet Hunter volunteers have also discovered 42 new planet candidates in the Kepler public archive data, of which 33 have at least 3 transits recorded. Most of these transit candidates have orbital periods longer than 100 days and 20 are potentially located in the habitable zones of their host stars. Nine candidates were detected with only two transit events and the prospective periods are longer than 400 days. The photometric models suggest that these objects have radii that range between those of Neptune and Jupiter. These detections nearly double the number of gas-giant planet candidates orbiting at habitable-zone distances. We conducted spectroscopic observations for nine of the brighter targets to improve the stellar parameters and we obtained adaptive optics imaging for four of the stars to search for blended background or foreground stars that could confuse our photometric modeling. We present an iterative analysis method to derive the stellar and planet properties and uncertainties by combining the available spectroscopic parameters, stellar evolution models, and transiting light curve parameters, weighted by the measurement errors. Planet Hunters is a citizen science project that crowd sources the assessment of NASA Kepler light curves. The discovery of these 43 planet candidates demonstrates the success of citizen scientists at identifying planet candidates, even in longer period orbits with only two or three transit events.

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DOE OSTI2013

Fast rise of 'Neptune-size' planets (4-8 R {sub ⊕}) from P ∼ 10 to ∼250 days—statistics of Kepler planet candidates up to ∼0.75 au

We infer the period (P) and size (R{sub p} ) distribution of Kepler transiting planet candidates with R{sub p} ≥ 1 R {sub ⊕} and P < 250 days hosted by solar-type stars. The planet detection efficiency is computed by using measured noise and the observed time spans of the light curves for ∼120,000 Kepler target stars. We focus on deriving the shape of planet periods and radius distribution functions. We find that for orbital periods P > 10 days, the planet frequency dN{sub p} /dlog P for 'Neptune-size' planets (R{sub p} = 4-8 R {sub ⊕}) increases with period as ∝P {sup 0.7±0.1}. In contrast, dN{sub p} /dlog P for 'super-Earth-size' (2-4 R {sub ⊕}) as well as 'Earth-size' (1-2 R {sub ⊕}) planets are consistent with a nearly flat distribution as a function of period (∝P {sup 0.11±0.05} and ∝P {sup –0.10±0.12}, respectively), and the normalizations are remarkably similar (within a factor of ∼1.5 at 50 days). Planet size distribution evolves with period, and generally the relative fractions for big planets (∼3-10 R {sub ⊕}) increase with period. The shape of the distribution function is not sensitive to changes in the selection criteria of the sample. The implied nearly flat or rising planet frequency at long periods appears to be in disagreement with the sharp decline at ∼100 days in planet frequency for low-mass planets (planet mass m{sub p} < 30 M {sub ⊕}) recently suggested by the HARPS survey. Within 250 days, the cumulative frequencies for Earth-size and super-Earth-size planets are remarkably similar (∼28% and 25%), while Neptune-size and Jupiter-size planets are ∼7% and ∼3%, respectively. A major potential uncertainty arises from the unphysical impact parameter distribution of the candidates.

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DOE OSTI2013

Kepler monitoring of an L dwarf I. The photometric period and white light flares

We report on the results of 15 months of monitoring the nearby field L1 dwarf WISEP J190648.47+401106.8 (W1906+40) with the Kepler mission. Supporting observations with the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array and Gemini North Telescope reveal that the L dwarf is magnetically active, with quiescent radio and variable Hα emission. A preliminary trigonometric parallax shows that W1906+40 is at a distance of 16.35{sub −0.34}{sup +0.36} pc, and all observations are consistent with W1906+40 being an old disk star just above the hydrogen-burning limit. The star shows photometric variability with a period of 8.9 hr and an amplitude of 1.5%, with a consistent phase throughout the year. We infer a radius of 0.92 ± 0.07R{sub J} and sin i > 0.57 from the observed period, luminosity (10{sup –3.67} {sup ±} {sup 0.03} L {sub ☉}), effective temperature (2300 ± 75 K), and vsin i (11.2 ± 2.2 km s{sup –1}). The light curve may be modeled with a single large, high latitude dark spot. Unlike many L-type brown dwarfs, there is no evidence of other variations at the ≳ 2% level, either non-periodic or transient periodic, that mask the underlying rotation period. We suggest that the long-lived surface features may be due to starspots, but the possibility of cloud variations cannot be ruled out without further multi-wavelength observations. During the Gemini spectroscopy, we observed the most powerful flare ever seen on an L dwarf, with an estimated energy of ∼1.6 × 10{sup 32} erg in white light emission. Using the Kepler data, we identify similar flares and estimate that white light flares with optical/ultraviolet energies of 10{sup 31} erg or more occur on W1906+40 as often as 1-2 times per month.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Stellar granulation as the source of high-frequency flicker in Kepler light curves

A large fraction of cool, low-mass stars exhibit brightness fluctuations that arise from a combination of convective granulation, acoustic oscillations, magnetic activity, and stellar rotation. Much of the short-timescale variability takes the form of stochastic noise, whose presence may limit the progress of extrasolar planet detection and characterization. In order to lay the groundwork for extracting useful information from these quasi-random signals, we focus on the origin of the granulation-driven component of the variability. We apply existing theoretical scaling relations to predict the star-integrated variability amplitudes for 508 stars with photometric light curves measured by the Kepler mission. We also derive an empirical correction factor that aims to account for the suppression of convection in F-dwarf stars with magnetic activity and shallow convection zones. So that we can make predictions of specific observational quantities, we performed Monte Carlo simulations of granulation light curves using a Lorentzian power spectrum. These simulations allowed us to reproduce the so-called flicker floor (i.e., a lower bound in the relationship between the full light-curve range and power in short-timescale fluctuations) that was found in the Kepler data. The Monte Carlo model also enabled us to convert the modeled fluctuation variance into a flicker amplitude directly comparable with observations. When the magnetic suppression factor described above is applied, the model reproduces the observed correlation between stellar surface gravity and flicker amplitude. Observationally validated models like these provide new and complementary evidence for a possible impact of magnetic activity on the properties of near-surface convection.

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DOE OSTI2014

Measurement of acoustic glitches in solar-type stars from oscillation frequencies observed by Kepler

For the very best and brightest asteroseismic solar-type targets observed by Kepler, the frequency precision is sufficient to determine the acoustic depths of the surface convective layer and the helium ionization zone. Such sharp features inside the acoustic cavity of the star, which we call acoustic glitches, create small oscillatory deviations from the uniform spacing of frequencies in a sequence of oscillation modes with the same spherical harmonic degree. We use these oscillatory signals to determine the acoustic locations of such features in 19 solar-type stars observed by the Kepler mission. Four independent groups of researchers utilized the oscillation frequencies themselves, the second differences of the frequencies and the ratio of the small and large separation to locate the base of the convection zone and the second helium ionization zone. Despite the significantly different methods of analysis, good agreement was found between the results of these four groups, barring a few cases. These results also agree reasonably well with the locations of these layers in representative models of the stars. These results firmly establish the presence of the oscillatory signals in the asteroseismic data and the viability of several techniques to determine the location of acoustic glitches inside stars.

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DOE OSTI2014

Influence of stellar multiplicity on planet formation. I. Evidence of suppressed planet formation due to stellar companions within 20 au and validation of four planets from the Kepler multiple planet candidates

The planet occurrence rate for multiple stars is important in two aspects. First, almost half of stellar systems in the solar neighborhood are multiple systems. Second, the comparison of the planet occurrence rate for multiple stars to that for single stars sheds light on the influence of stellar multiplicity on planet formation and evolution. We developed a method of distinguishing planet occurrence rates for single and multiple stars. From a sample of 138 bright (K{sub P} < 13.5) Kepler multi-planet candidate systems, we compared the stellar multiplicity rate of these planet host stars to that of field stars. Using dynamical stability analyses and archival Doppler measurements, we find that the stellar multiplicity rate of planet host stars is significantly lower than field stars for semimajor axes less than 20 AU, suggesting that planet formation and evolution are suppressed by the presence of a close-in companion star at these separations. The influence of stellar multiplicity at larger separations is uncertain because of search incompleteness due to a limited Doppler observation time baseline and a lack of high-resolution imaging observation. We calculated the planet confidence for the sample of multi-planet candidates and find that the planet confidences for KOI 82.01, KOI 115.01, KOI 282.01, and KOI 1781.02 are higher than 99.7% and thus validate the planetary nature of these four planet candidates. This sample of bright Kepler multi-planet candidates with refined stellar and orbital parameters, planet confidence estimation, and nearby stellar companion identification offers a well-characterized sample for future theoretical and observational study.

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DOE OSTI2014

Measurements of stellar inclinations for Kepler planet candidates. II. Candidate spin-orbit misalignments in single- and multiple-transiting systems

We present a test for spin-orbit alignment for the host stars of 25 candidate planetary systems detected by the Kepler spacecraft. The inclination angle of each star's rotation axis was estimated from its rotation period, rotational line broadening, and radius. The rotation periods were determined using the Kepler photometric time series. The rotational line broadening was determined from high-resolution optical spectra with the Subaru High Dispersion Spectrograph. Those same spectra were used to determine the star's photospheric parameters (effective temperature, surface gravity, metallicity), which were then interpreted with stellar-evolutionary models to determine stellar radii. We combine the new sample with the seven stars from our previous work on this subject, finding that the stars show a statistical tendency to have inclinations near 90°, in alignment with the planetary orbits. Possible spin-orbit misalignments are seen in several systems, including three multiple-planet systems (KOI-304, 988, 2261). Ideally, these systems should be scrutinized with complementary techniques, such as the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect, starspot-crossing anomalies, or asteroseismology, but the measurements will be difficult owing to the relatively faint apparent magnitudes and small transit signals in these systems.

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DOE OSTI2014

Kepler-413B: A slightly misaligned, Neptune-size transiting circumbinary planet

We report the discovery of a transiting, R{sub p} = 4.347 ± 0.099R {sub ⊕}, circumbinary planet (CBP) orbiting the Kepler K+M eclipsing binary (EB) system KIC 12351927 (Kepler-413) every ∼66 days on an eccentric orbit with a{sub p} = 0.355 ± 0.002 AU, e{sub p} = 0.118 ± 0.002. The two stars, with M{sub A} = 0.820 ± 0.015 M {sub ☉}, R{sub A} = 0.776 ± 0.009 R {sub ☉} and M{sub B} = 0.542 ± 0.008 M {sub ☉}, R{sub B} = 0.484 ± 0.024 R {sub ☉}, respectively, revolve around each other every 10.11615 ± 0.00001 days on a nearly circular (e {sub EB} = 0.037 ± 0.002) orbit. The orbital plane of the EB is slightly inclined to the line of sight (i {sub EB} = 87.°33 ± 0.°06), while that of the planet is inclined by ∼2.°5 to the binary plane at the reference epoch. Orbital precession with a period of ∼11 yr causes the inclination of the latter to the sky plane to continuously change. As a result, the planet often fails to transit the primary star at inferior conjunction, causing stretches of hundreds of days with no transits (corresponding to multiple planetary orbital periods). We predict that the next transit will not occur until 2020. The orbital configuration of the system places the planet slightly closer to its host stars than the inner edge of the extended habitable zone. Additionally, the orbital configuration of the system is such that the CBP may experience Cassini State dynamics under the influence of the EB, in which the planet's obliquity precesses with a rate comparable to its orbital precession. Depending on the angular precession frequency of the CBP, it could potentially undergo obliquity fluctuations of dozens of degrees (and complex seasonal cycles) on precession timescales.

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DOE OSTI2014

The hunt for exomoons with Kepler (HEK). IV. A search for moons around eight M dwarfs

With their smaller radii and high cosmic abundance, transiting planets around cool stars hold a unique appeal. As part of our ongoing project to measure the occurrence rate of extrasolar moons, in this work we present results from a survey focusing on eight Kepler planetary candidates associated with M dwarfs. Using photodynamical modeling and Bayesian multimodal nested sampling, we find no compelling evidence for an exomoon in these eight systems. Upper limits on the presence of such bodies probe down to masses of ∼0.4 M {sub ⊕} in the best case. For KOI-314, we are able to confirm the planetary nature of two out of the three known transiting candidates using transit timing variations. Of particular interest is KOI-314c, which is found to have a mass of 1.0{sub −0.3}{sup +0.4} M {sub ⊕}, making it the lowest mass transiting planet discovered to date. With a radius of 1.61{sub −0.15}{sup +0.16} R {sub ⊕}, this Earth-mass world is likely enveloped by a significant gaseous envelope comprising ≥17{sub −13}{sup +12}% of the planet by radius. We also find evidence to support the planetary nature of KOI-784 via transit timing, but we advocate further observations to verify the signals. In both systems, we infer that the inner planet has a higher density than the outer world, which may be indicative of photo-evaporation. These results highlight both the ability of Kepler to search for sub-Earth-mass moons and the exciting ancillary science that often results from such efforts.

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DOE OSTI2014

Validation of Kepler's multiple planet candidates. II. Refined statistical framework and descriptions of systems of special interest

We extend the statistical analysis performed by Lissauer et al. in 2012, which demonstrates that the overwhelming majority of Kepler candidate multiple transiting systems (multis) represents true transiting planets, and we develop therefrom a procedure to validate large numbers of planet candidates in multis as bona fide exoplanets. We show that this statistical framework correctly estimates the abundance of false positives already identified around Kepler targets with multiple sets of transit-like signatures based on their abundance around targets with single sets of transit-like signatures. We estimate the number of multis that represent split systems of one or more planets orbiting each component of a binary star system. We use the high reliability rate for multis to validate more than one dozen particularly interesting multi-planet systems herein. Hundreds of additional multi-planet systems are validated in a companion paper by Rowe et al. We note that few very short period (P < 1.6 days) planets orbit within multiple transiting planet systems and discuss possible reasons for their absence. There also appears to be a shortage of planets with periods exceeding a few months in multis.

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DOE OSTI2014

Validation of Kepler's multiple planet candidates. III. Light curve analysis and announcement of hundreds of new multi-planet systems

The Kepler mission has discovered more than 2500 exoplanet candidates in the first two years of spacecraft data, with approximately 40% of those in candidate multi-planet systems. The high rate of multiplicity combined with the low rate of identified false positives indicates that the multiplanet systems contain very few false positive signals due to other systems not gravitationally bound to the target star. False positives in the multi-planet systems are identified and removed, leaving behind a residual population of candidate multi-planet transiting systems expected to have a false positive rate less than 1%. We present a sample of 340 planetary systems that contain 851 planets that are validated to substantially better than the 99% confidence level; the vast majority of these have not been previously verified as planets. We expect ∼two unidentified false positives making our sample of planet very reliable. We present fundamental planetary properties of our sample based on a comprehensive analysis of Kepler light curves, ground-based spectroscopy, and high-resolution imaging. Since we do not require spectroscopy or high-resolution imaging for validation, some of our derived parameters for a planetary system may be systematically incorrect due to dilution from light due to additional stars in the photometric aperture. Nonetheless, our result nearly doubles the number verified exoplanets.

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DOE OSTI2014

Investigating the variability of active galactic nuclei using combined multi-quarter Kepler data

We used photometry from the Kepler satellite to characterize the variability of four radio-loud active galactic nuclei (AGNs) on timescales from years to minutes. The Kepler satellite produced nearly continuous high precision data sets which provided better temporal coverage than possible with ground based observations. We have now accumulated 11 quarters of data, eight of which were reported in our previous paper. In addition to constructing power spectral densities (PSDs) and characterizing the variability of the last three quarters, we have linked together the individual quarters using a multiplicative scaling process, providing data sets spanning ∼2.8 yr with >98% coverage at a 30 minute sampling rate. We compute PSDs on these connected data sets that yield power law slopes at low frequencies in the approximate range of –1.5 to –2.0, with white noise seen at higher frequencies. These PSDs are similar to those of both the individual quarters and to those of ground-based optical observations of other AGNs. We also have explored a PSD binning method intended to reduce a bias toward shallow slope fits by evenly distributing the points within the PSDs. This tends to steepen the computed PSD slopes, especially when the low frequencies are relatively poorly fit. We detected flares lasting several days in which the brightness increased by ∼15%-20% in one object, as well a smaller flare in another. Two AGNs showed only small, ∼1%-2%, fluctuations in brightness.

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DOE OSTI2014

The dynamics of the multi-planet system orbiting Kepler-56

Kepler-56 is a multi-planet system containing two coplanar inner planets that are in orbits misaligned with respect to the spin axis of the host star, and an outer planet. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the broad distribution of spin-orbit angles among exoplanets, and these theories fall under two broad categories. The first is based on dynamical interactions in a multi-body system, while the other assumes that disk migration is the driving mechanism in planetary configuration and that the star (or disk) is titled with respect to the planetary plane. Here we show that the large observed obliquity of Kepler 56 system is consistent with a dynamical origin. In addition, we use observations by Huber et al. to derive the obliquity's probability distribution function, thus improving the constrained lower limit. The outer planet may be the cause of the inner planets' large obliquities, and we give the probability distribution function of its inclination, which depends on the initial orbital configuration of the planetary system. We show that even in the presence of precise measurement of the true obliquity, one cannot distinguish the initial configurations. Finally we consider the fate of the system as the star continues to evolve beyond the main sequence, and we find that the obliquity of the system will not undergo major variations as the star climbs the red giant branch. We follow the evolution of the system and find that the innermost planet will be engulfed in ∼129 Myr. Furthermore we put an upper limit of ∼155 Myr for the engulfment of the second planet. This corresponds to ∼3% of the current age of the star.

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DOE OSTI2014

Most sub-arcsecond companions of Kepler exoplanet candidate host stars are gravitationally bound

Using the known detection limits for high-resolution imaging observations and the statistical properties of true binary and line-of-sight companions, we estimate the binary fraction of Kepler exoplanet host stars. Our speckle imaging programs at the WIYN 3.5 m and Gemini North 8.1 m telescopes have observed over 600 Kepler objects of interest and detected 49 stellar companions within ∼1 arcsec. Assuming binary stars follow a log-normal period distribution for an effective temperature range of 3000-10,000 K, then the model predicts that the vast majority of detected sub-arcsecond companions are long period (P > 50 yr), gravitationally bound companions. In comparing the model predictions to the number of real detections in both observational programs, we conclude that the overall binary fraction of host stars is similar to the 40%-50% rate observed for field stars.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

Tidal dissipation in a homogeneous spherical body. II. Three examples: Mercury, Io, and Kepler-10 b

In Efroimsky and Makarov (Paper I), we derived from the first principles a formula for the tidal heating rate in a homogeneous sphere, compared it with the previously used formulae, and noted the differences. Now we present case studies: Mercury, Kepler-10 b, and a triaxial Io. A sharp frequency dependence of k {sub 2}/Q near spin-orbit resonances yields a sharp dependence of k {sub 2}/Q (and, therefore, of tidal heating) upon the spin rate. Thereby physical libration plays a major role in tidal heating of synchronously rotating planets. The magnitude of libration in the spin rate being defined by the planet's triaxiality, the latter becomes a factor determining the dissipation rate. Other parameters equal, a strongly triaxial synchronized body generates more heat than a similar body of a more symmetrical shape. After an initially triaxial object melts and loses its triaxiality, dissipation becomes less intensive; the body can solidify, with the tidal bulge becoming a new figure with triaxiality lower than the original. We derive approximate expressions for the dissipation rate in a Maxwell planet with the Maxwell time longer than the inverse tidal frequency. The expressions derived pertain to the 1:1 and 3:2 resonances and a nonresonant case; so they are applicable to most close-in super-Earths detected. In these planets, the heating outside synchronism is weakly dependent on the eccentricity and obliquity, provided both these parameters's values are moderate. According to our calculation, Kepler-10 b could hardly survive the intensive tidal heating without being synchronized, circularized, and reshaped through a complete or partial melt-down.

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