Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “BACKSCATTERING”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 379 records · Page 21
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1992

Coherent-backscatter effect - A vector formulation accounting for polarization and absorption effects and small or large scatterers

Previous theoretical work on the coherent-backscatter effect in the context of speckle time autocorrelation has gone beyond the diffusion approximation and the assumption of isotropic (point) scatterers. This paper extends the theory to include the effects of polarization and absorption, and to give the angular line shape. The results are expressions for angular variations valid for small and large scatterers and linear and circular polarizations, in lossless or lossy media. Calculations show that multiple anisotropic scattering results in the preservation of incident polarization. Application to a problem in radar astronomy is considered. It is shown that the unusual radar measurements (high reflectivity and polarization ratios) of Jupiter's icy Galilean satellites can be explained by coherent backscatter from anisotropic (forward) scatterers.

Peters, Kenneth J.↗
NASA NTRS1992

C-band measurement of radar backscatter from the ocean surface during SWADE

A preliminary analysis of backscatter measurements collected during the joint NASA/ONR Surface Wave Dynamics Experiment (SWADE) by a C-band scatterometer (C-SCAT) is presented. Data were collected during a total of ten flights on board the NASA/Ames C-130B off the coast of Virginia. These backscatter measurements are vertically polarized, and were obtained over a full 360* in azimuth, at incidence angles ranging from 20 to 50 . The data set is now in a state where it can provide a unique test bed for normalized radar cross section (NRCS) model functions because of the variety of phenomena encountered, and the quantity and quality of the measurements.

Carson, S. C.↗
NASA NTRS1992

Modeling and measurement of microwave emission and backscattering from bare soil surfaces

A multifrequency ground-based radiometer-scatterometer system working at frequencies between 3.0 GHz and 11.0 GHz has been used to study the effect of soil moisture and roughness on microwave emission and backscattering. The freezing and thawing effect of the soil surface and the changes of the surface roughness due to rain and erosion are reported. To analyze the combined active and passive data, a scattering model based on physical optics approximation for the low frequency and geometrical optics approximation for high frequency has been developed. The model is used to calculate the bistatic scattering coefficients from the surface. By considering the conservation of energy, the result has been integrated over a hemisphere above the surface to calculate the emissivity. The backscattering and emission model has been coupled with the observed data in order to extract soil moisture and surface roughness.

Saatchi, S.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Backscattering by nonspherical hydrometeors as calculated by the coupled-dipole method - An application in radar meteorology

The severest test of a theory of scattering by particles is how well it calculates scattering in the backward direction. The coupled-dipole method can be used for accurately calculating backscattering at 94 GHz by hexagonal ice crystals. Backscattering by columns is markedly different from that by plates, which indicates that it might be possible to infer size and shape distributions of ice crystals using recently developed millimeter wave radar.

Dungey, Clifton E.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Satellite measurements of the backscattered ultraviolet to determine ozone trends, volcanic SO2, and nitric oxide

Measurements of the atmospheric backscattered UV albedo have been used from satellites for more than 20 years to measure ozone. The longest continuous record has been from the Solar Backscattered Ultraviolet instrument (SBUV) and TOMS on the Nimbus 7 satellite, which have been in operation since November of 1978. Because of degradation in space of the diffuser plate used to measure extraterrestrial solar flux, it has been necessary to develop new techniques to maintain the calibration of these instruments. Calibration is maintained by requiring that ozone measured by different wavelength pairs be consistent, and by requiring that ozone measured at different solar zenith angles be consistent. This technique of using a geophysical quantity, ozone, as a transfer standard for wavelength calibration is very powerful. The recalibrated data have been used to measure total ozone trends to an accuracy of +/- 1.3 percent 2(sigma) error over ten years. No significant trends are found near the equator, but significant trends larger than predicted by homogeneous chemistry are found at middle to high latitudes in both hemispheres. In addition, UV albedo data have been used to measure SO2 using band structure in the 300-310 nm range, and to measure nitric oxide in the upper stratosphere and mesosphere using the (10) and (02) NO gamma band fluorescence features.

Mcpeters, Richard↗
NASA NTRS1985

Develop a plan for establishing global aerosol backscatter coefficient data base

A potential improvement on measuring atmospheric winds by using a coherent Doppler system has led to a need for detailed knowledge concerning the aerosol backscattering characteristics, especially at CO2 wavelengths. In order to meet this requirement, a plan of study has been developed to establish a global data base of atmospheric aerosol backscattering coefficients.

Chang, Ho-Pen↗
NASA NTRS1993

Scientific studies in association with the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) project

During the past reporting period efforts focused on performing detailed comparisons between measurements made by the SBUV/2 V instruments carried on NOAA-9 and NOAA-11 and the first three flights of the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) project. The quantities to be compared are the measurables, being the ratio of emergent radiance (I) in the vertical direction to the incoming solar irradiance (F). The backscatter albedo, A(w,j), was defined by: A(w,j) = I(w,j)/F(w,j) where w = 1,2,..., 12 refers to wavelength, and j indicates the instrument and flight on which the data were obtained. The comparisons to be made are NOAA-9 to SSBUV-1, NOAA-11 to SSBUV-2, and NOAA-11 to SSBUV-3. For the comparisons the N-values contained in the data files supplied by GSFC were converted to albedos via: A(w,j) = 10(exp N(w,j)/100). The comparisons described were designed to characterize the differences between the NOAA and SSBUV data sets.

Frederick, John E.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Backscatter Mossbauer Spectrometer (BaMS) for extraterrestrial applications

Mossbauer spectroscopy is a nuclear gamma resonance technique particularly well suited to the study of materials that contain iron (Fe-57). It can provide information on the oxidation state of iron as well as the type and proportion of iron-containing mineral species in a sample of interest. Iron Mossbauer spectroscopy (FeMS) has been applied to samples believed to have come from Mars (SNC meteorites) and has been helpful in refining the choice among putative Martian surface materials by suggesting a likely nanophase component of the Martian regolity. FeMS spectrum of a Martial analogue material (Hawaiian palagonite) is shown; it is dominated by ferric-bearing phases and shows evidence of a nanophase component. FeMS has also been applied to lunar materials. It can be used to measure the maturity of lunar surface material and has been proposed as a prospector for lunar ilmenite, an oxygen resource mineral. Several years ago we suggested a backscatter Mossbauer spectrometer (BaMS) for a Mars rover mission. Backscatter design was selected as most appropriate for in-situ application because no sample preparation is required. Since that time, we have continued to develop the BaMS instrument in anticipation that it would eventually find a home on a NASA planetary mission. Gooding proposed BaMS as a geochemistry instrument on MESUR. More recently, an LPI workshop has recommended that BaMS be included in a three-instrument payload on the next (1996?) lunar lander.

Agresti, D. G.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A dynamic localization model with stochastic backscatter

The modeling of subgrid scales in large-eddy simulation (LES) has been rationalized by the introduction of the dynamic localization procedure. This method allows one to compute rather than prescribe the unknown coefficients in the subgrid-scale model. Formally, the LES equations are supposed to be obtained by applying to the Navier-Stokes equations a 'grid filter' operation. Though the subgrid stress itself is unknown, an identity between subgrid stresses generated by different filters has been derived. Although preliminary tests of the Dynamic Localization Model (DLM) with k-equation have been satisfactory, the use of a negative eddy viscosity to describe backscatter is probably a crude representation of the physics of reverse transfer of energy. Indeed, the model is fully deterministic. Knowing the filtered velocity field and the subgrid-scale energy, the subgrid stress is automatically determined. We know that the LES equations cannot be fully deterministic since the small scales are not resolved. This stems from an important distinction between equilibrium hydrodynamics and turbulence. In equilibrium hydrodynamics, the molecular motions are also not resolved. However, there is a clear separation of scale between these unresolved motions and the relevant hydrodynamic scales. The result of molecular motions can then be separated into an average effect (the molecular viscosity) and some fluctuations. Due to the large number of molecules present in a box with size of the order of the hydrodynamic scale, the ratio between fluctuations and the average effect should be very small (as a result of the 'law of large numbers'). For that reason, the hydrodynamic balance equations are usually purely deterministic. In turbulence, however, there is no clear separation of scale between small and large eddies. In that case, the fluctuations around a deterministic eddy viscosity term could be significant. An eddy noise would then appear through a stochastic term in the subgrid-scale model and could be the source of backscatter.

Carati, Daniele↗
NASA NTRS1995

Investigation of microwave backscatter from the air-sea interface

Monitoring the ocean surface winds and mean ocean surface level is essential for improving our knowledge of the climate. Two instruments that may provide us with this information are satellite-based scatterometers and altimeters. However, these instruments measure the backscatter characteristics of the ocean surface from which other physical parameters, such as the wind speed or ocean surface height, are derived. To improve the algorithms or models that relate the electromagnetic backscatter to the desired physical parameters, the University of Massachusetts (UMass) Microwave Remote Sensing Laboratory (MIRSL) designed and fabricated three airborne scatterometers: a C-band scatterometer (CSCAT), Ku-band scatterometer (KUSCAT) and C/Ku-band scatterometer (EMBR). One or more of these instruments participated in the Electromagnetic Bias experiment (EM Bias), Shelf Edge Exchange Processes experiment (SEEP), Surface Wave Dynamics Experiment (SWADE), Southern Ocean Wave Experiment (SOWEX), Hurricane Tina research flights, Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE), and Ladir In-space Technology Experiment (LITE). This document describes the three scatterometers, summarizes our measurement campaigns and major contributions to the scientific and engineering communities, lists the publications that resulted, and presents the degrees earned under the support of this NASA grant.

Mcintosh, Robert E.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Airborne CO2 coherent lidar measurements of cloud backscatter and opacity over the ocean surface

The use of an airborne CO2 lidar to obtain cloud backscatter and extinction data at a thermal infrared wavelength is described. The extinction in this spectral region is proportional to the cloud liquid water content. The use of coherent detection results in high sensitivity and narrow field of view, the latter property greatly reducing multiple-scattering effects. Backscatter measurements in absolute units are obtained through a hard target calibration methodology. For clouds of low to moderate optical thickness at the lidar wavelength, both geometric thickness and optical thickness can be measured. The sea surface reflectance signal is used to obtain estimates of the cloud optical thickness. The utility of this technique results from studies that indicate that the spatial scale of variability of the sea surface reflectance is generally large compared with that of cloud optical thickness. Selected results are presented from data taken during flights over the Pacific Ocean.

Menzies, Robert T.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Multi-wavelength profiles of aerosol backscatter over Lauder, New Zealand, 24 November 1992

Simultaneous profiles of aerosol backscatter ratio were measured over Lauder, New Zealand (45 deg S, 170 deg E) on the night of November 24, 1992. Instrumentation comprised two complementary lidar systems and a backscattersonde, to give measurements at wavelengths 351, 490, 532, and 940 nm. The data from the lidars and the backscattersonde were self-consistent, enabling the wavelength dependence of aerosol backscatter to be determined as a function of altitude. This wavelength-dependence is a useful parameter in radiative transfer calculations. In the stratosphere, the average wavelength exponent between 351 and 940 nm was -1.23 +/- 0.1, which was in good agreement with values derived from measured physical properties of aerosols.

Mckenzie, R. L.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Calibration of the NOAA 11 solar backscatter ultraviolet (SBUV/2) ozone data set from 1989 to 1993 using in-flight calibration data and SSBUV

Total ozone and ozone profiles are currently being measured by solar backscatter ultraviolet (SBUV/2) instruments onboard NOAA polar orbiting spacecraft using the backscattered ultraviolet technique. The NOAA 11 SBUV/2 operational data set, reprocessed from January 1989 to May 1993 (version 6), includes an updated algorithm and revised prelaunch and postlaunch calibrations of the geometrical albedo observations used to derive ozone values. The postlaunch calibration revisions remove time dependent errors in the ozone amounts due to instrument drift, while the revised prelaunch calibration corrects the absolute value of retrieved ozone. The prelaunch corrections are a result of calibration checks from in-orbit comparisons of ultraviolet geometric albedos measured by shuttle SBUV (SSBUV) and the NOAA 11 SBUV/2. Geometric albedo comparison data are further corrected using a radiative transfer code to account for the small difference in observing conditions between the two spacecraft. The postlaunch corrections rely on in-flight calibration and solar irradiance data to account for time dependent changes in instrument gain, thermal response, and instrument diffuser degradation over time. Comparison of data from three SSBUV flights, which occurred about one year apart, with concurrent SBUV/2 data provided an independent check of the time dependent change derived from the in-flight calibration data. Time independent corrections result in an increase of about 1% for total ozone, 5% for ozone at 1 mbar, and near 0% at 15 mbar. The time dependent corrections amount to an increase of 2% for total ozone, 10% for ozone near 1 mbar, and 3% at 15 mbar at the end of the current record in May 1993. Recent laboratory studies indicate that the absolute radiance calibrations may still be in error by a few percent which results in ozone profile values that are too low. The SBUV/2 total and ozone profile data are compared to the Nimbus SBUV data during the period when the data overlapped. Total ozone values agree to about 1%, while ozone profile differences range from -4% to +6%, depending on latitude and altitude, relative to SBUV. These differences are not statistically significant given the uncertainties of the two data sets.

Hilsenrath, E.↗
NASA NTRS1995

Microwave Backscatter and Attenuation Dependence of Leaf Area Index for Flooded Rice Fields

Wetlands are important for their role in global climate as a source of methane and other reduced trace gases. As part of an effort to determine whether radar is suitable for wetland vegetation monitoring, we have studied the dependence of microwave backscatter and attenuation on leaf area index (LAI) for flooded rice fields. We find that the radar return from a flooded rice field does show dependence on LAI. In particular, the C-band VV cross section per unit area decreases with increasing LAI. A simple model for scattering from rice fields is derived and fit to the observed HH and VV data. The model fit provides insight into the relation of backscatter to LAI and is also used to calculate the canopy path attenuation as a function of LAI.

Durden, Stephen L.↗
NASA NTRS1996

The Cause of the Hot Spot in Vegetation Canopies and Soils: Shadow-Hiding Versus Coherent Backscatter

Two different mechanisms, shadow-hiding and coherent backscatter, can cause a hot spot, or opposition effect, in the bidirectional reflectance of vegetation and soils. Because the two mechanisms sample different properties, it is important to know which one is primarily responsible in a given medium. This question can be answered by measuring the bidirectional reflectance in circularly polarized light. If the results of the limited experiments reported here can be extrapolated to a wider range of materials, it appears that the primary cause of the hot spot in most vegetation canopies and in moist, clumpy soils is shadow-hiding. However, in vegetation with large numbers of wavelength-sized structures, such as mosses, and in dry, fine-grained soils, the hot spot is dominated by coherent backscatter.

Hapke, Bruce↗
NASA NTRS1998

Raman Lidar Measurements of Aerosol Extinction and Backscattering: Methods and Comparisons - Report 1

This paper examines the aerosol backscattering and extinction profiles measured at night by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Scanning Raman Lidar (SRL) during the remote cloud sensing (RCS) intensive operations period (IOP) at the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) southern Great Plains (SGP) site in April 1994. These lidar data are used to derive aerosol profiles for altitudes between 0.0 1 5 and 5 km. Since this lidar detects Raman scattering from nitrogen and oxygen molecules as well as the elastic scattering from molecules and aerosols, it measures both aerosol backscattering and extinction simultaneously. The aerosol extinction/backscattering ratio varied between approximately 30 sr and 75 sr at 351 nm. Aerosol optical thicknesses derived by integrating the lidar profiles of aerosol extinction measured at night between 0. I and 5 km are found to be about 10-40% lower than those measured by a Sun photometer during the day. This difference is attributed to the contribution by stratospheric aerosols not included in the lidar estimates as well as to diurnal differences in aerosol properties and concentrations. Aerosol profiles close to the surface were acquired by pointing the lidar nearly horizontally. Measurements of aerosol scattering from a tower-mounted nephelometer are found to be 40% lower than lidar measurements of aerosol extinction over a wide range of relative humidities even after accounting for the difference in wavelengths. The reasons for this difference are not clear but may be due to the inability of the nephelometer to accurately measure scattering by large particles.

Ferrare, R. A.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Comparison of CO2 Lidar Backscatter with Particle Size Distribution and GOES-7 Data in Hurricane Juliette

Backscatter measurements using 9.1 and 10.6 micron continuous wave lidars were obtained along with particle size distributions in 1995 Hurricane Juliette at altitude approximately 11.7 km. Agreement between lidar backscatter and cloud particle size distribution was excellent. Measurements also correlated well with concurrent GOES-7 infrared images of cloud top height.

Jarzembski, Maurice↗
NASA NTRS1999

Aerosol Backscatter from Airborne Continuous Wave CO2 Lidars over Western North America and the Pacific Ocean

Aerosol backscatter measurements using two continuous wave CO2 Doppler lidars were obtained over western North America and the Pacific Ocean during a 1995 NASA airborne mission. Similarities and differences for aerosol loading over land and ocean were observed. Mid-tropospheric aerosol backscatter background mode was approximately 6 x 10(exp -11)/m.sr, consistent with previous lidar datasets.

Jarzembski, Maurice A.↗