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DOE OSTI2021

Battery Critical Materials Supply Chain Challenges and Opportunities: Results of the 2020 Request for Information (RFI) and Workshop

The purpose of this report is to outline and discuss the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)’s findings related to EERE’s Request for Information (RFI) on Battery Critical Materials Supply Chain Research & Development (R&D) and the EERE R&D Battery Critical Materials Supply Chain Workshop. The United States has committed to achieving 50% or more reduction of greenhouse gas pollution by 2030, with a long-term goal to completely decarbonize the U.S. economy by 2050, and to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius (The White House, 2021a).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Initial Heliostat Supply Chain Analysis

Globally, the growing demand for concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies, primarily for electricity generation plants has been met with supply chains primarily composed of plentiful commodity materials such as steel, aluminum, and glass. Often the majority of the commodity materials are sourced within the domestic market where generating plants are constructed. Although specialty components are required for CSP solar field components - including mirror panels used for heliostat applications - these specialty components constitute about 30-50% of total system installed costs. Only a few companies and countries, including the United States, have developed the capacity to supply such specialty components. This report is an initial assessment of the global and U.S. heliostat supply chain.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Analysis of Supply Chain Challenges in the U.S. Solar Industry: Focus on Build America, Buy America Act and Inverter Supply Issues

The United States (U.S.) solar industry has been undergoing significant transformation, driven largely by meeting U.S. climate goals while simultaneously maintaining national security. At the forefront of this movement is the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) and the Build America, Buy America (BABA) Act. The IRA has driven investment in clean energy generation deployments while the BABA Act, enacted under Division G, Title IX of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) establishes domestic content procurement preference for all federal financial assistance obligated for infrastructure projects. While these pieces of legislation aim to reduce reliance on foreign-made solar components and increase domestic production, the sector continues to face notable supply chain challenges. These are particularly pronounced with inverters, a critical component in solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. This report explores the current state of these supply chain challenges, with a specific focus on the impact of the BABA requirements and the associated complexities in inverter manufacturing and supply.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Wind Supply Chain Security: Hardware Enumeration and Analysis

This project, undertaken by Idaho National Laboratory (INL) for the Department of Energy (DOE) Wind Energy Technologies Office (WETO), focused on the enumeration and analysis of six key devices important to wind technologies. The devices analyzed included Beckhoff Bus Terminal Controllers (BK1120 and BC9000), a Beckhoff Economy Built-in Panel PC (CP6231), an N-Tron Managed Industrial Ethernet Switch (711FX3), a Bachmann M1 Gateway, and a Bachmann Smart Power Plant Controller. Device selection was driven by availability and budget constraints, with several components sourced from existing wind farms and others procured through a co-agreement with another WETO-funded project. The project's primary objective was to create a hardware bill of materials (HBOM) for each device, identifying and documenting all components to assess potential security and supply chain risks. A detailed analysis revealed over 750 unique components across the six devices, with 80% successfully identified and accompanied by datasheets. Notably, Texas Instruments emerged as the leading supplier, providing over 16% of the components, followed by ON Semiconductor at 11.3%, Analog Devices at 5.3%, and Renesas Electronics Corp at 4.1%. Other notable vendors included Toshiba Corporation, iC-Haus Corporation, Atmel, Vishay, and STMicroelectronics. The enumeration process involved thorough documentation of each component, including its designation, quantity, identifiers, pin package, description, vendor, model, and country of origin. This process provided valuable insights into the complexity and diversity of the electronic systems within these wind devices. It also highlighted the distinct separation of components between vendors, suggesting a trend of vendor-specific component usage. Key findings from the project emphasized the importance of broadening the scope of vendor analysis in future research to gain a comprehensive understanding of component distribution and commonality. The identification of vendor-specific component usage patterns offers new avenues for research and underscores the significance of continued investigation in this field. Overall, this project provides critical insights into the component composition of wind devices, aiding in the development of improved supply chain management and component sourcing strategies. The results contribute valuable knowledge to the wind technology sector, laying the groundwork for enhanced security and resilience in wind energy systems.

17 - WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

Informing Transmission Supply Chain Needs from National Transmission Studies

Recent national studies indicate significant transmission expansion can provide the lowest-cost option to maintain grid reliability while meeting growing demand. However, constraints in domestic supply chains may limit grid expansion across the U.S., with higher costs and longer delays for required transmission equipment. Despite growing evidence of supply chain constraints for transmission components, transmission planning studies often assume transmission equipment is readily available for deployment or analyze future demand using historical trade and manufacturing data that may not capture evolving grid needs. This report aims to address this gap by demonstrating methods to quantify future demand for critical transmission components and input materials from national-scale planning models. These components include power transformers, generator step-up transformers, converter transformers, conductors, circuit breakers, and transmission towers and the materials include aluminum, steel, grain-oriented electrical steel (GOES), and copper. The analytical approach is applied to two nodal transmission expansion scenarios from the National Transmission Planning Study (NTP) to illustrate the methods. These scenarios represent different transmission expansion strategies for the contiguous U.S. to the year 2035: the Alternating Current (AC) scenario includes AC transmission expansion within each interconnection and the Multiterminal (MT) scenario includes interregional transmission expansion across the country using both AC and multiterminal HVDC options between neighboring zones. We also explore potential heuristics to derive transmission component demand from zonal capacity expansion models (CEMs) with coarse representation of the transmission grid.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2026

Informing Transmission Supply Chain Needs from National Transmission Studies

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2026

Large Power Transformer Supply Chain Gap Analysis and Domestic Content Strategies for Hydropower Rehabilitation: Supplemental Report

Large Power Transformers (LPTs) are indispensable to U.S. hydropower operations, serving as generator step-up (GSU) units that interconnect hydro facilities to the transmission grid. Yet the LPT supply chain faces mounting stress from aging infrastructure, limited domestic production, and long lead times. Currently, more than 80% of LPT demand is met through imports, with primary suppliers including Mexico, South Korea, Brazil, Austria, and Canada. Domestic manufacturers supply only about 20% of units, constrained by bottlenecks in high-grade Grain-Oriented Electrical Steel (GOES), copper conductors, bushings, and on-load tap changers (OLTCs). Hydropower rehabilitation projects in particular face additional challenges due to custom design requirements, remote siting, and regulatory needs around domestic content. Regional cost disparities, driven by transportation logistics, labor markets, and import price volatility, further exacerbate project risks. To address these vulnerabilities, coordinated action is required: strengthening domestic capacity for GOES and secondary components, developing near-site assembly hubs, and leveraging IRS domestic content safe harbors to incentivize U.S. manufacturing. This addendum refines the 2024 NREL Hydropower Supply Chain Gap Analysis by focusing specifically on critical issues related to LPT domestic manufacturing capacity and key considerations for hydropower developers and asset owners.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Wind Energy Supply Chain Fact Sheet

Wind energy is essential to achieving the Biden Administration’s goals of a 100% clean electricity sector by 2035 and 30 gigawatts of offshore wind by 2030. On February 24, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) released a deep dive assessment of the land-based and offshore wind supply chains in the United States today, highlighting challenges and opportunities for strengthening these supply chains to help achieve the Administration’s goals and create U.S. jobs and economic opportunity.

wind, offshore, supply chain, DOE, fact sheet↗

DOE OSTI2023

Gearing Up for 2030: Building the Offshore Wind Supply Chain and Workforce Needed to Deploy 30 GW and Beyond

This webinar addresses the current state and future needs of the U.S. offshore wind energy workforce and supply chain. During this webinar, National Renewable Energy Laboratory researchers Matt Shields and Jeremy Stefek will present new research on the challenges of producing thousands of offshore wind energy technology components while creating tens of thousands of U.S. jobs - and the solutions that can help meet those challenges. Topics covered in the webinar include port facilities, vessels, component manufacturing, trades and roles in the industry, workforce development and training, and the coordination of supply chain and workforce efforts between states and regions.

2030↗

DOE OSTI2024

Solar Photovoltaic and Storage Supply Chains and Technology and Market Opportunities

This talk will highlight the most recent efforts from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to track solar photovoltaic (PV) and storage supply and demand in the United States and globally, as well as bottom-up calculations of manufacturing costs for facilities across the globe. We will begin with an overview of the global solar PV supply chain and 2022 benchmark input data used for NREL's bottom-up crystalline silicon (c-Si) and thin film PV module manufacturing cost models. For the polysilicon, wafer, cell conversion, and module assembly steps of the c-Si supply chain, and for thin film modules, we will review the industry-collected input data and methods used for calculating the costs of goods sold (COGS); research and development (R&D) expenses; and sales, general, and business administration (S, G, and A) expenses. This 2022 benchmark analysis is compiled for state-of-the-art c-Si and thin film PV module manufacturing in several countries and regions; and will also include a quantified summary of the impacts of the manufacturing incentives and tax credits that are available for solar manufacturing and installations within the United States. Next generation technologies that lower PV manufacturing and installation costs, reduce operations and maintenance (O&M) expenses, and improve system energy yield will also be highlighted. We will conclude with projections of solar market penetration to 2050 from NREL's Solar Futures Study and Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) model, which includes solar coupled with lower-cost storage scenarios as well as the range of future cost scenarios for other power generation sources. We look forward to sharing NREL's extensive work in these areas and discussing ideas for future directions.

economics↗

DOE OSTI2024

Electrolyzer Supply Chain Readiness Level (SCRL)

The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Office of Manufacturing and Energy Supply Chains (MESC) is revitalizing the U.S. manufacturing base with over $20 billion of direct investment in manufacturing capacity, industrial decarbonization, and workforce development. This work will provide guidance to MESC and other government organizations as to which supply chain components to invest in to reduce material vulnerability for hydrogen electrolyzers as part of the Modeling, Mapping, and Analysis (MMAC) Consortium.

AEC↗

DOE OSTI2024

Evaluating Nationwide Supply Chain for Circularity of PET and Olefin Plastics

PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate, #1) and olefin plastics including HDPE (High Density Polyethylene, #2), LDPE/LLDPE (Low Density/Linear Low-Density Polyethylene, #4) and PP (Polypropylene, #5) together comprise nearly 80% of the U.S. plastic market. Due to their high market share and extensive application in packaging these polymers have better potential for circularity than other polymer types. To understand the potential of future scenarios with higher recycling rates, supply chain scenarios for PET and olefin plastic packaging need to be analyzed with increased availability and collection of plastics. Currently there exists a knowledge gap to understand the circular supply chain on a national level. Performing a nationwide analysis introduces certain challenges such as variability in the plastic mix of the recycling stream in different municipalities, lack of collection of some types of plastics, regional differences in cost and estimating a national supply curve based on state level access rate and participation rate. Currently, a limited number of Plastic Reclaimers recycle the nation’s collected plastic involving transportation over long distances surpassing state boundaries. Modeling a nationwide scenario instead of regional/state based scenario will facilitate transportation beyond state boundaries for the development of a circular economy. A Mixed-integer Linear Programming model was developed, to identify the optimal location and capacity of the Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) nationwide subject to maximizing the profit margin of the industrial entities within the model. We considered three different scenarios including the base case scenario (S1) collecting 2.27 million metric tons/year as well as two additional scenarios with available plastic supply of 1.8 times (S2) and 2.2 times (S3) of the base case scenario. The model identified 166, 275 and 319 counties as potential MRF locations for scenarios S1, S2 and S3 respectively. Compared to the existing number of counties having MRFs in the US, the model results indicated a reduction of 38% of MRFs for S1. For S2 and S3, the number of counties with MRFs increased 3% and 20% respectively compared to counties currently with MRFs. The average profit remains constant between $180-$181/ton regardless of the increased plastic collection.

54 - ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES/GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ↗

DOE OSTI2025

BESS Digital Assurance, Supply Chain Risk Management, and Emerging Regulation Session One - Abridged

The TADA BESS Supply Chain Workshops are designed to equip participants with the knowledge and tools necessary to address the evolving challenges at the intersection of battery energy storage systems (BESS), cybersecurity, and supply chain vulnerabilities. The workshops emphasize the application of Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) principles using INL’s procurement guide and the CIE-BAT tool. Attendees will develop risk-based security strategies and actionable compliance roadmaps tailored to their BESS projects. Additionally, the program fosters a collaborative network of practitioners and provides guidance on navigating emerging regulatory requirements, including FEOC rules under the OBBB framework, to assess and enhance organizational readiness. This is Session 1 of 3.

25 - ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

BESS Digital Assurance, Supply Chain Risk Management, and Emerging Regulation Session One

25 - ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2020

As‐Cast Ternary Organic Solar Cells Based on an Asymmetric Side‐Chains Featured Acceptor with Reduced Voltage Loss and 14.0% Efficiency

Abstract A new small‐molecule nonfullerene acceptor based on the benzo[1,2‐ b :4,5‐ b ′]dithiophene (BDT) fused central core with asymmetrical alkoxy and thienyl side chains, namely TOBDT , is designed and synthesized. The alkoxy unit helps narrow the bandgap, and thienyl side chain helps enhance the intermolecular interaction. As a result, TOBDT is suitable to match the deep‐lying highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of polymer donor PM6 . Then, a strong crystalline acceptor IDIC is introduced as the third component to fabricate as‐cast nonfullerene ternary devices to achieve absorption and morphology control. Addition of IDIC not only mixes well with TOBDT but modulates the morphology of the blend film, which helps to balance the charge transport properties and reduce the photovoltage loss of ternary devices. All these contribute to synergetic improvement of J sc , V oc , and fill factor parameters, leading to a power conversion efficiency of 14.0% for the as‐cast fullerene‐free ternary device.

Chen, Xuebin↗

DOE OSTI2023

Fine‐Tuning Alkyl Chains on Quinoxaline Nonfullerene Acceptors Enables High‐Efficiency Ternary Organic Solar Cells with Optimizing Molecular Stacking and Reducing Energy Loss

Abstract Material design of guest acceptor is always a big challenge for improving the efficiency of ternary organic solar cells (OSCs). Here, a pair of isomeric nonfullerene acceptors based on quinoxaline core, Qx–p‐C 7 H 8 O and Qx–m‐C 7 H 8 O, is designed and synthesized. By moving the alkoxy chain attached on side phenyl frommeta‐position topara‐position, both π–π stacking distance and crystallinity are enhanced simultaneously. They obtain the uplifted lowest unoccupied molecular orbital level. Compared to Qx–m‐C 7 H 8 O, Qx–p‐C 7 H 8 O exhibits wider absorption spectrum and higher extinction coefficient. Using D18‐Cl:N3 as host materials, the addition of guest acceptor Qx–p‐C 7 H 8 O significantly improves the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 17.61% to 18.49% because of higher open‐circuit voltage (0.875 V) and short‐circuit current density (27.85 mA cm −2 ). This can be attributed to the faster exciton dissociation, more balanced carrier mobility, fine fiber morphology, and lower energy loss in the ternary devices. However, Qx–m‐C 7 H 8 O‐based ternary device achieves relatively low PCE of 17.17% because this device shows extremely low electron mobility. The results indicate that molecular stacking, film morphology, etc., can be effectively modulated by fine‐tuning the side chains of guest materials, which may be an effective design rule for further improving the PCE of OSCs.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2021

Tuning Conjugated Polymer Chain Packing for Stretchable Semiconductors

We report in order to apply polymer semiconductors to stretchable electronics, they need to be easily deformed under strain without being damaged. A small number of conjugated polymers, typically with semicrystalline packing structures, have been reported to exhibit mechanical stretchability. Herein, a method is reported to modify polymer semiconductor packing-structure using a molecular additive, dioctyl phthalate (DOP), which is found to act as a molecular spacer, to be inserted between the amorphous chain networks and disrupt the crystalline packing. As a result, large-crystal growth is suppressed while short-range aggregations of conjugated polymers are promoted, which leads to an improved mechanical stretchability without affecting charge-carrier transport. Due to the reduced conjugated polymer intermolecular interactions, strain-induced chain alignment and crystallization are observed. By adding DOP to a well-known conjugated polymer, poly[2,5-bis(4-decyltetradecyl)pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-(2H,5H)-dione-(E)-1,2-di(2,2 '-bithiophen-5-yl)ethene] (DPPTVT), stretchable transistors are obtained with anisotropic charge-carrier mobilities under strain, and stable current output under strain up to 100%.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2023

Introducing a Phenyl End Group in the Inner Side Chains of A‐DA'D‐A Acceptors Enables High‐Efficiency Organic Solar Cells Processed with Nonhalogenated Solvent

Abstract Power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells (OSCs) processed by nonhalogenated solvents is unsatisfactory due to the unfavorable morphology. Herein, two new small molecule acceptors (SMAs) Y6‐Ph and L8‐Ph are synthesized by introducing a phenyl end group in the inner side chains of the SMAs of Y6 and L8‐BO, respectively, for overcoming the excessive aggregation of SMAs in the long‐time film forming processed by nonhalogenated solvents. First, the effect of the film forming time on the aggregation property and photovoltaic performance of Y6, L8‐BO, Y6‐Ph, and L8‐Ph is studied by using the commonly used solvents: chloroform (CF) (rapid film forming process) and chlorobenzene (CB) (slow film forming process). It is found that Y6‐ and L8‐BO‐based OSCs exhibit a dramatic drop in PCE from CF‐ to CB‐processed devices owing to the large phase separation, while the Y6‐Ph and L8‐Ph based OSCs show obviously increased PCEs Furthermore, L8‐Ph‐based OSCs processed by nonhalogenated solvento‐xylene (o‐XY) achieved a high PCE of 18.40% with an FF of 80.11%. The results indicate that introducing a phenyl end group in the inner side chains is an effective strategy to modulate the morphology and improve the photovoltaic performance of the OSCs processed by nonhalogenated solvents.

Chemistry↗