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DOE OSTI2017

Characterization of the Triassic Newark Basin of New York and New Jersey for geologic storage of carbon dioxide

The Newark Basin is a Triassic-aged rift basin underlying densely populated, industrialized sections of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Basin is an elongate half-graben encompassing an area of more than 7,510 square-kilometers (2,900 square-miles), and could represent a key storage component for commercial scale management of carbon dioxide emissions via geologic sequestration. The project team first acquired published reports, surface and subsurface maps, and seismic data, which formed the basis for a three-dimensional model framework for the northern end of the Basin incorporating stratigraphic, hydrologic, and water quality data. Field investigations included drilling, coring, and logging of two stratigraphic test borings in Clarkstown, NY (Exit 14 Tandem Lot Well No. 1), drilled to a depth of 2,099 meters (6,885 feet); and Palisades, NY (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Test Well No. 4) drilled to a depth of 549 meters (1,802 feet). Two two-dimensional seismic reflection data lines arrayed perpendicularly were acquired by Schlumberger/WesternGeco to help characterize the structure and stratigraphy and as part of pre-drilling field screening activities for the deep stratigraphic borehole. A total of 47 meters (155 feet) of continuous whole core was recovered from the Tandem Lot boring from depths of 1,393 meters (4,570 feet) to 1,486 meters (4,877 feet). Twenty-five horizontal rotary cores were collected in mudstones and sandstones in the surface casing hole and fifty-two cores were taken in various lithologies in the deep borehole. Rotary core plugs were analyzed by Weatherford Laboratories for routine and advanced testing. Rotary core plug trim end thin sections were evaluated by the New York State Museum for mineralogical analysis and porosity estimation. Using core samples, Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory designed and completed laboratory experiments and numerical modeling analyses to characterize the dissolution and reaction of carbon dioxide with formation brine and minerals, and resulting effects on injection rate, pressure, effective storage volume, and carbon dioxide migration within a prospective sandstone reservoir. $$Three potential porous and permeable sandstone units were identified in the Passaic Formation at the New York State Thruway Exit 14 location. Potential Flow Unit 1, at a depth of 643 meters (2,110 feet) to 751 meters (2,465 feet); Potential Flow Unit 2 at a depth of 853 meters (2,798 feet) to 1,000 meters (3,280 feet); and Potential Flow Unit 3, at a depth of 1,114 meters (3,655 feet) to 1,294 meters (4,250 feet). Reactive transport simulations of interactions between carbon dioxide, brine and formation minerals were carried out to evaluate changes in formation water chemistry, mineral precipitation and dissolution reactions, and any potential resulting effects on formation permeability. The experimental and modeling analyses suggest that mineral precipitation and dissolution reactions (within the target formation) are not expected to lead to significant changes to the underground hydrologic system over time frames (~30 years) typically relevant for carbon dioxide injection operations. Key findings of this basin characterization study include an estimate of carbon dioxide storage capacity in the Newark Basin. Assuming an average porosity of twelve percent and an aquifer volume of 6.1E+12 meters3, calculated ranges of likely storage capacity range from 1.9 – 20.2 gigatonnes under high temperature (low carbon dioxide density) conditions; and 2.9 – 30.2 gigatonnes under low temperature (low carbon dioxide density) conditions. Intra-basin faulting, geometry of the Palisades Sill, and the presence of altered meta-sediments above and below the Sill, increase potential compartmentalization within the basin. A structural/stratigraphic trap type may occur where porous/permeable sediments are cross-cut by the Palisades Sill. Potential injection intervals are present within the Stockton Formation of the Newark Basin. Additional porous/permeable intervals may be present within sandstones of the Passaic Formation, increasing projected storage capacity. Deeper wedges of strata are likely present in the deeper portions of the basin in southern New York and into northern New Jersey. Abundant mudstones are present in the Passaic, Lockatong, and Stockton Formations. These intervals have the requisite petrophysical properties to form effective primary and secondary containment intervals to industrial-scale sequestration of carbon dioxide in the Newark Basin. Hydro-thermally altered meta-sediments in the region immediately surrounding the top and base of the Palisades Sill is devoid of porosity/permeability and forms an additional effective lateral/vertical sealing cap rock.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Geomechanical Framework for Secure CO 2 Storage in Fractured Reservoirs and Caprocks for Sedimentary Basins in theMidwest United States

This report presents final technical results for the project Geomechanical Framework for Secure CO 2 Storage in Fractured Reservoirs and Caprocks for Sedimentary Basins in the Midwest United States (DE-FE0023330). The project was a three-year effort consisting of seven technical tasks focused on defining geomechanical factors for CO 2 storage applications in deep saline rock formations in Ohio and the Midwest United States, because geomechancial issues have been identified as a significant risk factor for large-scale CO 2 storage applications. A basin-scale stress-strain analysis was completed to describe the geomechanical setting for rock formations of Ordovician-Cambrian age in Ohio and adjacent areas of the Midwest United States in relation to geologic CO 2 storage applications. The tectonic setting, stress orientation-magnitude, and geomechanical and petrophysical parameters for CO 2 storage zones and caprocks in the region were cataloged. Ten geophysical image logs were analyzed for natural fractures, borehole breakouts, and drilling-induced fractures. The logs indicated mostly less than 10 fractures per 100 vertical feet in the borehole, with mostly N65E principal stress orientation through the section. Geophysical image logs and other logs were obtained for three wells located near the sites where specific models were developed for geomechanical simulations: Arches site in Boone County, Kentucky; Northern Appalachian Basin site in Chautauqua County, New York; and E-Central Appalachian Basin site in Tuscarawas County, Ohio. For these three wells, 9,700 feet of image logs were processed and interpreted to provide a systematic review of the distribution within each well of natural fractures, wellbore breakouts, faults, and drilling induced fractures. There were many borehole breakouts and drilling-induced tensile fractures but few natural fractures. Concentrated fractures were present at the Rome-basal sandstone and basal sandstone-Precambrian contacts at the Arches and East-Central Appalachian Basin sites. Geophysical logs were utilized to develop local-scale geologic models by determining geomechanical and petrophysical parameters within the geologic formations. These data were ported to coupled fluid-flow and reservoir geomechanics multi-phase CO 2 injection simulations. The models were developed to emphasize the geomechanical layers within the CO 2 storage zones and caprocks. A series of simulations were completed for each site to evaluate whether commercial-scale CO 2 could be safely injected into each site, given site-specific geologic and geomechanical controls. This involved analyzing the simulation results for the integrity of the caprock, intermediate, and reservoir zones, as well quantifying the areal uplift at the surface. Simulation results were also examined to ensure that the stress-stress perturbations were isolated within the subsurface, and that there was only limited upward migration of the CO 2 . Simulations showed capacity to inject more than 10 million metric tons of CO 2 in a single well at the Arches and East Central Appalachian Basin sites without excessive geomechanical risks. Low-permeability rock layers at the Northern Appalachian Basin study area well resulted in very low CO 2 injection capacity. Fracture models developed for the sites suggests that the sites have sparse fracture network in the deeper Cambrian rocks. However, there were indicators in image logs of a moderate fracture matrix in the Rose Run Sandstone at the Northern Appalachian Basin site. Dual permeability fracture matrix simulations suggest the much higher injection rates may be feasible in the fractured interval. Guidance was developed for geomechanical site characterization in the areas of geophysical logging, rock core testing, well testing, and site monitoring. The guidance demonstrates that there is a suitable array of options for addressing geomechanical issues at CO 2 storage sites. Finally, a review of Marcellus and Utica-Point Pleasant shale gas wells and CO 2 storage intervals indicates that these items are vertically separated, except for the Oriskany sandstone and Marcellus wells in southwest Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia. Together, project results present a more realistic portrayal of geomechanical risk factors related to CO 2 storage for existing and future coal-fired power plants in Ohio.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Stacked Greenfield and Brownfield ROZ Fairways in the Illinois Basin Geo-Laboratory: Co-Optimization of EOR and Associated CO 2 Storage

Residual oil zones (ROZs) are economically viable targets for carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery (CO 2 -EOR); thick, carbonate ROZs in the San Andres Formation in the Wasson Field of the Permian Basin are an example. Incremental oil produced from CO 2 -EOR can be carbon negative via associated storage of injected CO 2 . Given the regional extent of ROZ fairways and generally higher net utilization of CO 2 (compared to conventional CO 2 -EOR), ROZs provide the opportunity for significant carbon neutral to carbon negative oil production with associated CO 2 storage, and therefore should be a priority target for exploration. However, ROZs have not been widely recognized or identified due to poor or no conventional oil production. Hence, in places like the Illinois Basin (ILB), exploratory analyses are required to recognize the existence of an ROZ. As part of this study, four formations were selected for detailed regional characterization and analysis: Carper Sandstone (part of the Borden Siltstone), Tar Springs Sandstone, Cypress Sandstone, and Middle Devonian (Geneva Dolomite and associated Dutch Creek Sandstone). The four formations underwent regional geological characterization to develop a regional geologic framework for the ROZs and their overlying seals. Findings of this study are supported by data from two field laboratory sites, one with stacked greenfield ROZs and the other with a stacked complex that includes a brownfield ROZ and depleted conventional reservoirs. The field laboratory sites were used to collect data and conduct tests to validate ROZ detection methodologies and identify economic field-deployable strategies to co-optimize CO 2 -EOR and associated storage in stacked ROZs. Findings from these field sites were extrapolated to characterize the basin-wide stacked ROZ fairway resource.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2024

Jurassic deserts and CO2 sequestration: the Glen Canyon Group in Utah, western USA

The Early Jurassic in the Western Interior of USA consisted of an extensive desert environment, including one of the largest ergs in geologic history. The Navajo erg has been estimated to extend as much as 2.2 million square kilometers, though the preserved extent is somewhat smaller. The Mesozoic was a global greenhouse phase, and during the Jurassic this region experienced fluctuations in climate aridity, reflected in the depositional environment. In addition to extensive dunefields, interdune deposits (lakes and oases) and fluvial systems are also documented within formations of the Glen Canyon Group. The Navajo Sandstone has received much attention as a potential CO2 injection target in recent years. It consists of thick, aeolian sandstones with high porosity and permeability, occurs in both outcrop and subcrop, and has industry data. Mapping of stratigraphic and sedimentologic changes within the Navajo Sandstone has been undertaken in localized areas, however piecing together these studies and developing regional models for CO2 potential has not received as much attention. There is significant industry data across Utah, and utilizing this data to pivot from a focus on hydrocarbon extraction to CO2 injection is an effective way to move forward with green energy, and to meet carbon neutral emission goals. Using legacy well data, we are developing a more comprehensive study of the Navajo Sandstone as a potential CO2 reservoir, in addition to identifying other zones of interest within the Glen Canyon Group, and improving understanding of stratigraphic complexity within one of the most significant aeolian systems in the world.

Mahon, Elizabeth↗

DOE OSTI2025

lllinois Storage Corridor CarbonSAFE Phase III: Pre-drilling Site Assessment: Prairie State Generating Company

The Illinois Storage Corridor project will drill a stratigraphic test well as part of the Illinois Storage Corridor CarbonSAFE Phase 3 project near the Prairie State Generating Company coal-fired power plant near Marissa, Illinois. The pre-drilling site evaluation has considered the primary target reservoirs, the Potosi Dolomite and St. Peter Sandstone, and primary seal, the Maquoketa Group. Data to be collected from the well include core, fluid samples, in situ well tests, geophysical logs intended to provide information on lithologic, geomechanical, and geophysical characteristics to determine the feasibility for the geologic sequestration of 50 million metric tons or more of injected carbon dioxide. The planned drilling site has been evaluated using available subsurface geologic data and analyses from the Illinois Basin. These data provide lithologic and structural information, shallow groundwater resource distribution, location of known nearby wellbores, and regional drilling characteristics. The data were used to generate geologic structure and isopach maps for the target reservoir and caprock strata and for prognosing the tops of major lithologic units to aid drilling and coring procedures. The regional analyses indicate that no known structural features are expected to negatively impact the target storage reservoir or caprock. No protected and sensitive areas, groundwater resources, or existing resource development are expected to be impacted by the proposed well drilling activities. The well is planned to be drilled to a total depth of approximately 5,600 feet (1,707 m) and terminate in the Precambrian. Cores (up to 5 intervals) will be collected from the Maquoketa Group, confining units above the St. Peter Sandstone, St. Peter Sandstone, confining units of the Potosi Dolomite and the Potosi Dolomite. Water samples will be attempted to be collected from the St. Peter Sandstone and Potosi Dolomite. Potential impact on drilling progress is a lost circulation zone in the Potosi Dolomite, which has been demonstrated to have intermittent cavernous porosity from karstification elsewhere in the Illinois Basin. This document also presents a preliminary coring and sampling program, proposed logging suite, and well testing program, all of which will be reviewed during drilling.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2026

Uinta Basin CarbonSAFE II: Storage Complex Feasibility (Final Report)

The primary objective of this CarbonSAFE Phase II project was to establish the technical and commercial feasibility of a commercial-scale CO 2 geological storage complex for Deseret Power Electric Cooperative Bonanza Power Plant and other CO 2 sources in the northeast Uinta Basin, Utah, with the goal to securely store at least 50 million metric tons of captured CO 2 and accelerate CO 2 capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) deployment. The project team established high-potential technical and commercial feasibility for a storage site within the east Uinta Basin (Utah), in the Cretaceous sandstones (Frontier, Dakota, and Buckhorn), Entrada Sandstone, Nugget Sandstone, and/or Weber Sandstone southwest of the Bonanza coal-fired power plant. This project collected and analyzed state-of-the-art data to characterize the storage complex consistent with Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) permitting standards. The team conducted extensive analog studies, outcrop mapping, and data sampling, which largely contributed to understanding the subsurface lithology and facies. Existing data were obtained and assessed from Utah Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining (DOGM), Utah Geological Survey (UGS), Colorado Geological Survey (CGS), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and EPA. These data were analyzed using state-of-the-art CCUS technologies for Societal Considerations, Site Characterization, Modeling and Simulations, Risk Assessment, Management and Monitoring, potential Underground Injection Control (UIC) Class VI Well Permitting, and Technical/Economic Feasibility. Through these high-resolution data collection and feasibility studies, this project was expected to provide a reference for initiating Underground Injection Control (UIC) and other commercial-scale geological storage permitting processes in the Western United States, ultimately contributing to the nation's decarbonization goals through low-risk, cost-effective commercial-scale carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) projects.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2014

2D Seismic Reflection Data across Central Illinois

In a continuing collaboration with the Midwest Geologic Sequestration Consortium (MGSC) on the Evaluation of the Carbon Sequestration Potential of the Cambro-Ordovician Strata of the Illinois and Michigan Basins project, Schlumberger Carbon Services and WesternGeco acquired two-dimensional (2D) seismic data in the Illinois Basin. This work included the design, acquisition and processing of approximately 125 miles of (2D) seismic reflection surveys running west to east in the central Illinois Basin. Schlumberger Carbon Services and WesternGeco oversaw the management of the field operations (including a pre-shoot planning, mobilization, acquisition and de-mobilization of the field personnel and equipment), procurement of the necessary permits to conduct the survey, post-shoot closure, processing of the raw data, and provided expert consultation as needed in the interpretation of the delivered product. Three 2D seismic lines were acquired across central Illinois during November and December 2010 and January 2011. Traversing the Illinois Basin, this 2D seismic survey was designed to image the stratigraphy of the Cambro-Ordovician sections and also to discern the basement topography. Prior to this survey, there were no regionally extensive 2D seismic data spanning this section of the Illinois Basin. Between the NW side of Morgan County and northwestern border of Douglas County, these seismic lines ran through very rural portions of the state. Starting in Morgan County, Line 101 was the longest at 93 miles in length and ended NE of Decatur, Illinois. Line 501 ran W-E from the Illinois Basin – Decatur Project (IBDP) site to northwestern Douglas County and was 25 miles in length. Line 601 was the shortest and ran N-S past the IBDP site and connected lines 101 and 501. All three lines are correlated to well logs at the IBDP site. Originally processed in 2011, the 2D seismic profiles exhibited a degradation of signal quality below ~400 millisecond (ms) which made interpretation of the Mt. Simon and Knox sections difficult. The data quality also gradually decreased moving westward across the state. To meet evolving project objectives, in 2012 the seismic data was re-processed using different techniques to enhance the signal quality thereby rendering a more coherent seismic profile for interpreters. It is believed that the seismic degradation could be caused by shallow natural gas deposits and Quaternary sediments (which include abandoned river and stream channels, former ponds, and swamps with peat deposits) that may have complicated or changed the seismic wavelet. Where previously limited by seismic coverage, the seismic profiles have provided valuable subsurface information across central Illinois. Some of the interpretations based on this survey included, but are not limited to: - Stratigraphy generally gently dips to the east from Morgan to Douglas County. - The Knox Supergroup roughly maintains its thickness. There is little evidence for faulting in the Knox. However, at least one resolvable fault penetrates the entire Knox section. - The Eau Claire Formation, the primary seal for the Mt. Simon Sandstone, appears to be continuous across the entire seismic profile. - The Mt. Simon Sandstone thins towards the western edge of the basin. As a result, the highly porous lowermost Mt. Simon section is absent in the western part of the state. - Overall basement dip is from west to east. - Basement topography shows evidence of basement highs with on-lapping patterns by Mt. Simon sediments. - There is evidence of faults within the lower Mt. Simon Sandstone and basement rock that are contemporaneous with Mt. Simon Sandstone deposition. These faults are not active and do not penetrate the Eau Claire Shale. It is believed that these faults are associated with a possible failed rifting event 750 to 560 million years ago during the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia.

Smith, Valerie↗

DOE OSTI2014

MODELING POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF SO2 CO-INJECTED WITH CO2 ON THE KNOX GROUP, WESTERN KENTUCKY

Understanding potential long-term impacts of CO2 impurities, such as sulfur and nitrogen compounds, on deep carbon storage reservoirs is of considerable interest because co-injection of the impurities with CO2 can bring significant economic and environmental benefits. The Cambrian–Ordovician Knox Group, a thick sequence of dolostone (Beekmantown Dolomite) with minor dolomitic sandstone (Gunter Sandstone), in western Kentucky, USA, has been evaluated as a prospective CO2 sequestration target. In this study, TOUGHREACT was used to build 1-D radial models to simulate the potential impacts of co-injected CO2 and SO2 on minerals, pore fluids, and porosity and permeability in the Beekmantown Dolomite and the Gunter Sandstone. Co-injection of a mass ratio of 2.5 percent SO2 and 97.5 percent CO2, representative of flue gas from coal-fired plants, was simulated and the co-injection simulations were compared to models with CO2 only injections. The model results suggest that the major impacts of added SO2 for both the Beekmantown and the Gunter rocks were significant enhancement of dissolution of dolomite and precipitation of anhydrite, leading to noticeable increases in porosity and permeability. The Gunter Sandstone appeared to be more active with SO2 than the Beekmantown Dolomite. More dolomite was dissolved in the Gunter than in the Beekmantown with the same SO2 impurity. Consequently, porosity was raised more in the Gunter than in the Beekmantown. On the other hand, the impacts on aluminosilicate minerals appeared to be insignificant in both reservoirs, slightly changing the rates of precipitation/dissolution but the overall reaction paths remained the same.

Zhu, Junfeng↗

DOE OSTI2018

Feasibility of a Deep Direct-Use Geothermal System at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

This study assesses the feasibility of using deep direct-use (DDU) geothermal energy in agricultural research facilities on the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign campus to exploit low-temperature sedimentary basins, such as the Illinois Basin. Subsurface components of the system include extraction and injection wells and downhole pumps. Surface equipment includes heat pumps/exchangers, and fluid transport and monitoring systems. Two geologic formations in the region exhibit a potential as sources for geothermal energy, based on pre initial temperatures and flow rates of fluids. The St. Peter and Mt. Simon Sandstones lie at depths of 634 and 1,280 m, respectively. Geocellular modeling is used to characterize the reservoirs. A St. Peter Sandstone model was made for an area south of the campus. Petrophysical and geothermal properties used are based on data from the closest wells penetrating the formations. Characterization of the Mt. Simon Sandstone is in progress and is not discussed here. Extraction and injection flows simulated with different wellbore configurations provide estimates of fluid flow out of and into the reservoir. The models are used to optimize flow rates, bottomhole pressure, and temperature of the produced fluid. Individual wellbore models simulate subsurface heat loss and gain, providing guidance on the optimal type and amount of insulation in the wellbore. Design of the surface facilities will address aspects of fluid delivery, heat exchange, capital operating costs, heat loss, and corrosion. Heat capacity and flow rates are assessed to estimate life-cycle costs and benefits, including the environmental benefits of reducing greenhouse gases and water use and increased energy efficiency. A preliminary analysis of surface configurations for the DDU system (including cascading applications) based on building heat loads is being conducted to identify multiple system designs that will maximize performance, energy efficiency, and cost recovery.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Diagenesis is key to unlocking outcrop fracture data suitable for quantitative extrapolation to geothermal targets

Exceptionally large, well-exposed sandstone outcrops in New York provide insights into folds, deformation bands, and fractures that could influence permeability, heat exchange, and stimulation outcomes of geothermal reservoir targets. Cambrian Potsdam Sandstone with <5% porosity contains decimeter-scale open, angular-limbed monoclines <0.5 km apart with associated low-porosity mm-wide cataclastic deformation bands. Crossing and abutting relationships among sub-vertical opening-mode fractures show four chronological Sets A–D, striking NNW, NE, NW, and ENE, respectively. Fracture lengths and heights range from millimeters to tens of meters. Sets A and C macro-fractures, and possibly B and D, contain quartz deposits. All sets have abundant associated quartz cemented microfractures that also record set orientations and crosscutting relations. Quartz cement deposits—evidence of diagenesis—are the key to identifying attributes of outcrop fractures suitable for extrapolation to geothermal targets in sandstones because they show which fractures formed in the subsurface. Set A fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures (120°C–129°C) are compatible with fracture at >3 km depth. Fractures are stiff and those ≥0.05 mm (Set C) and ≥0.1 mm (Set A) are open and potentially conducive to flow. Sets A and D are abundant in outcrops with close fracture spacing—0.18 m and 0.68 m, respectively—and define a rectangular connectivity network dominated by crossing and abutting X and Y nodes. Set A aperture distributions follow a power law with slope –0.8 up to 0.15 mm; other sets have lognormal distributions. Set A and D microfractures are weakly clustered, while macro-fractures commonly have 1D anticlustered (regular or periodic) arrangements at shorter length scales (<0.2 m). Sub-horizontal fractures are barren and may have formed near the surface. Fracture heights, lengths, and spatial arrangements show good trace connectivity but low open connectivity. For geothermal applications, outcrop results predict low initial well-test permeabilities owing to quartz disconnecting open fractures, but stimulation of closely spaced microfractures and partly open macro-fractures could yield high surface area for heat exchange. Quantitative extrapolation of key fracture attributes like abundance, orientation, spatial arrangement, length, and open fracture connectivity is possible from outcrops to fractured reservoirs if differing thermal histories and diagenesis are accounted for.

02 PETROLEUM↗

DOE OSTI2020

The role of the spatial heterogeneity and correlation length of surface wettability on two-phase flow in a CO 2 -water-rock system

This study characterized and modeled heterogeneous surface wettability in sandstone and investigated the role of spatial heterogeneity and correlation length of surface wettability on relative permeability in a supercritical CO 2 (scCO 2 )-brine-rock system. Understanding the role of wettability heterogeneity on relative permeability is essential to geological CO 2 sequestration, oil and gas recovery, and contaminated groundwater remediation. Although numerous studies have attempted to understand the influences of surface wettability, capillary number (Ca), and viscosity ratio, the role of the spatial variation and correlation length of surface wettability on two-phase flow in three-dimensional (3D) porous media has not been unraveled due to the challenges in the measurement and representation of realistic rock surface wettability. In this work, we conducted in-situ measurements of surface contact angle (CA) in a Bentheimer sandstone after CO 2 flooding using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), and found that the pore-scale CA distribution on rock surfaces followed a log-normal distribution associated with a spatial correlation length. Based on the statistical information from CT scanning, a Gaussian random field was used to model CA distributions that had desired standard deviations and spatial correlation lengths, which were then adjusted within a certain range of values for sensitivity analyses to study their combined effects on the two-phase flow in the porous medium using the lattice Boltzmann (LB) method. The LB two-phase flow simulation was accelerated using hybrid, multicore parallel computing to overcome the challenges in simulating multiphase flow in a large 3D domain having 800 × 800 × 600 nodes. The simulation results showed that the surface wettability heterogeneity (i.e., standard deviation of CA) had a lesser effect on the relative permeability of the wetting fluid (water) but a more significant impact on the relative permeability of the non-wetting fluid (scCO 2 ). The Corey model was used to fit the LB-simulated relative permeability curves of water and scCO 2 and showed that the variations in the relative permeability curves for both water and scCO 2 increased as the standard deviation and spatial correlation length of CA increased. This study illustrated that the assumption of homogeneous surface wettability may cause errors in multiphase flow simulations. Furthermore, the impacts of both the standard deviation and spatial correlation length of CAs should be accounted for. This is the first study that explored the spatial correlation lengths associated with CA distributions on sandstone surfaces and comprehensively investigated the roles of both spatial variation and correlation length of CA on two-phase flow properties in 3D porous media. The optimized LB multiphase flow model was proved a powerful tool to study the interplays and combined effects of these statistical parameters, which had critical applications in numerous natural and engineering processes that involved multiphase flow in porous media.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2015

Alteration of immature sedimentary rocks on Earth and Mars. Recording Aqueous and Surface-atmosphere Processes

The rock alteration and rind formation in analog environments like Antarctica may provide clues to rock alteration and therefore paleoclimates on Mars. Clastic sedimentary rocks derived from basaltic sources have been studied in situ by martian rovers and are likely abundant on the surface of Mars. Moreover, how such rock types undergo alteration when exposed to different environmental conditions is poorly understood compared with alteration of intact basaltic flows. Here we characterize alteration in the chemically immature Carapace Sandstone from Antarctica, a terrestrial analog for martian sedimentary rocks. We employ a variety of measurements similar to those used on previous and current Mars missions. Laboratory techniques included bulk chemistry, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), hyperspectral imaging and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Through these methods we find that primary basaltic material in the Carapace Sandstone is pervasively altered to hydrated clay minerals and palagonite as a result of water–rock interaction. A thick orange rind is forming in current Antarctic conditions, superimposing this previous aqueous alteration signature. The rind exhibits a higher reflectance at visible-near infrared wavelengths than the rock interior, with an enhanced ferric absorption edge likely due to an increase in Fe 3+ of existing phases or the formation of minor iron (oxy)hydroxides. This alteration sequence in the Carapace Sandstone results from decreased water–rock interaction over time, and weathering in a cold, dry environment, mimicking a similar transition early in martian history. This transition may be recorded in sedimentary rocks on Mars through a similar superimposition mechanism, capturing past climate changes at the hand sample scale. These results also suggest that basalt-derived sediments could have sourced significant volumes of hydrated minerals on early Mars due to their greater permeability compared with intact igneous rocks.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Rhenium Isotope Reconnaissance of Uranium Ore Concentrates

Exploration of natural isotopic variations of the element rhenium (Re) is in its infancy, with initial studies revealing isotopic fractionation in a variety of geological materials. Here, in this work, we investigate Re isotope variation as a new geochemical tool, given its redox-sensitive properties and affinity for organic matter and sulfides. In this work, Re abundance and isotope ratio data were collected from uranium ore concentrates (UOCs) across a variety of depositional ages, locations, geologic settings, and deposit types. Ore types from which the UOC were derived include sandstone, unconformity, and quartz-pebble (QP) conglomerate. To isolate Re from the U-rich matrix of UOCs, a new purification method utilizing DGA ion exchange resin was developed. We found that UOCs exhibit a wide range of Re isotope ratios, with sandstone ore-derived UOCs having the isotopically lightest values, QP conglomerate ore-derived UOCs having the heaviest, and unconformity ore-derived UOCs in between (with some overlap with sandstone UOCs). The Re isotope ratio range observed in UOCs extends previously reported values by more than a factor of two. Industrial processing (e.g., incomplete recovery of Re from ore, contamination, fractionation during processing) may play a role in the isotopic variability in the UOCs. However, systematic differences between ore types suggest that the depositional setting is a significant factor. For nuclear forensic investigations, Re isotopic compositions combined with data from other isotopic systems provide geochemical signatures that can aid in provenance assessment of UOCs. Regardless of the specific causes for the wide range of Re isotope ratios in UOCs, these initial data indicate Re is a promising tool for nuclear forensic investigations on samples from early in the nuclear fuel cycle.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

The low salinity effect at high temperatures

The mechanism(s) of low salinity water flooding (LSWF) must be better understood at high temperatures and pressures if the method is to be applied in high T/P kaolinite-bearing sandstone reservoirs. We measured contact angles between a sandstone and an oil (acid number, AN = 3.98 mg KOH/g, base number, BN = 1.3 mg KOH/g) from a reservoir in the Tarim Field in western China in the presence of various water chemistries. We examined the effect of aqueous ionic solutions (formation brine, 100X diluted formation brine, and softened water), temperature (60, 100 and 140 °C) and pressure (20, 30, 40, and 50 MPa) on the contact angle. We also measured the zeta potential of the oil/water and water/rock interfaces to calculate oil/brine/rock disjoining pressures. A surface complexation model was developed to interpret contact angle measurements and compared with DLVO theory predictions. Contact angles were greatest in formation water, followed by the softened water, and low salinity water at the same pressure and temperature. Contact angles increased slightly with temperature, whereas pressure had little effect. DLVO and surface complexation modelling predicted similar wettability trends and allow reasonably accurate interpretation of core-flood results. Water chemistry has a much larger impact on LSWF than reservoir temperature and pressure. As a result, low salinity water flooding should work in high temperature and high pressure kaolinite-bearing sandstone reservoirs.

02 PETROLEUM↗

DOE OSTI2020

Origin and composition of three heterolithic boulder- and cobble-bearing deposits overlying the Murray and Stimson formations, Gale Crater, Mars

Heterolithic, boulder-containing, pebble-strewn surfaces occur along the lower slopes of Aeolis Mons (“Mt. Sharp”) in Gale crater, Mars. They were observed in HiRISE images acquired from orbit prior to the landing of the Curiosity rover. The rover was used to investigate three of these units named Blackfoot, Brandberg, and Bimbe between sols 1099 and 1410. These unconsolidated units overlie the lower Murray formation that forms the base of Mt. Sharp, and consist of pebbles, cobbles and boulders. Blackfoot also overlies portions of the Stimson formation, which consists of eolian sandstone that is understood to significantly postdate the dominantly lacustrine deposition of the Murray formation. Blackfoot is elliptical in shape (62 x 26 m), while Brandberg is nearly circular (50 x 55 m), and Bimbe is irregular in shape, covering about ten times the area of the other two. The largest boulders are 1.5–2.5 m in size and are interpreted to be sandstones. As seen from orbit, some boulders are light-toned and others are dark-toned. Rover-based observations show that both have the same gray appearance from the ground and their apparently different albedos in orbital observations result from relatively flat skyfacing surfaces. Chemical observations show that two clasts of fine sandstone at Bimbe have similar compositions and morphologies to nine ChemCam targets observed early in the mission, near Yellowknife Bay, including the Bathurst Inlet outcrop, and to at least one target (Pyramid Hills, Sol 692) and possibly a cap rock unit just north of Hidden Valley, locations that are several kilometers apart in distance and tens of meters in elevation. These findings may suggest the earlier existence of draping strata, like the Stimson formation, that would have overlain the current surface from Bimbe to Yellowknife Bay. Compositionally these extinct strata could be related to the Siccar Point group to which the Stimson formation belongs.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

A rock physics and seismic reservoir characterization study of the Rock Springs Uplift, a carbon dioxide sequestration site in Southwestern Wyoming

We present a reservoir geophysics study, including rock physics modeling and seismic inversion, of a carbon dioxide sequestration site in Southwestern Wyoming, namely the Rock Springs Uplift, and build a petrophysical model for the potential injection reservoirs for carbon dioxide sequestration. Our objectives include the facies classification and the estimation of the spatial model of porosity and permeability for two sequestration targets of interest, the Madison Limestone and the Weber Sandstone. The available dataset includes a complete set of well logs at the location of the borehole available in the area, a set of 110 core samples, and a seismic survey acquired in the area around the well. The proposed study includes a formation evaluation analysis and facies classification at the well location, the calibration of a rock physics model to link petrophysical properties and elastic attributes using well log data and core samples, the elastic inversion of the pre-stack seismic data, and the estimation of the reservoir model of facies, porosity and permeability conditioned by seismic inverted elastic attributes and well log data. In particular, the rock physics relations are facies-dependent and include granular media equations for clean and shaley sandstone, and inclusion models for the dolomitized limestone. The permeability model has been computed by applying a facies-dependent porosity-permeability relation calibrated using core sample measurements. Finally, the study shows that both formations show good storage capabilities. The Madison Limestone includes a homogeneous layer of high-porosity high-permeability dolomite; the Weber Sandstone is characterized by a lower average porosity but the layer is thicker than the Madison Limestone.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Gouge formation and dilation impacts to flow during fracture shearing

We report flow in fractures is of critical importance to fluid flow in low-permeability shales, particularly when they restrict vertical migration from reservoirs. The Mt. Simon Sandstone is a target for geologic CO 2 sequestration and the overlying Eau Claire Formation is the sealing formation capping this reservoir. The lower Eau Claire, a primary barrier to upward migration of CO 2 from the Mt. Simon, is lithologically heterogenous with a mixture of sandstone and shale. We use a series of flow-through experiments on fractured samples from the Eau Claire to document the morphological changes taking place in the fracture and surrounding rock as it is sheared in a stepwise fashion. The samples were imaged using computed tomography after each shearing episode and flow resistance was calculated based on the pressure differential across each core. We found that gouge accumulations in the fracture plane led to specific instances of self-sealing behavior despite the fact that most samples increased in average fracture aperture and transmissivity. Gouge limited the increase or, in some cases, decreased flow through these samples. Fractures adjacent to shale-rich zones and concordant with bedding were more likely to show evidence of self-sealing, while increased sandstone content and fracture orientation perpendicular to bedding planes was more likely to result in fracture dilation and fracture permeability increases. Reactivation and shearing of vertical fractures in lithologically heterogenous caprocks is more likely to pose risks to long term CO 2 storage scenarios.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Periodic changes in effluent chemistry at cold-water geyser: Crystal geyser in Utah

Crystal geyser is a CO 2 -driven cold-water geyser which was originally drilled in the late 1930’s in Green River, Utah. By utilizing a suite of temporal groundwater sample datasets, in situ monitoring of temperature, pressure, pH and electrical conductivity from multiple field trips to Crystal geyser from 2007 to 2014, periodic trends in groundwater chemistry from the geyser effluent were identified. Based on chemical characteristics, the primary sourcing aquifers are characterized to be both the Entrada and Navajo Sandstones with a minor contribution from Paradox Formation brine. The single eruption cycle at Crystal geyser lasted over four days and was composed of four parts: Minor Eruption (mEP), Major Eruption (MEP), Aftershock Eruption (Ae) and Recharge (R). During the single eruption cycle, dissolved ionic species vary 0–44% even though the degree of changes for individual ions are different. Generally, Na + , K + , Cl - and SO 4 2- regularly decrease at the onset and throughout the MEP. These species then increase in concentration during the mEP. In contrast, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 2+ and Sr 2+ increase and decrease in concentration during the MEP and mEP, respectively. The geochemical inverse modeling with PHREEQC was conducted to characterize the contribution from three end-members (Entrada Sandstone, Navajo Sandstone and Paradox Formation brine) to the resulting Crystal geyser effluent. Results of the inverse modeling showed that, during the mEP, the Navajo, Entrada and brine supplied 62–65%, 36–33% and 1–2%, respectively. During the MEP, the contribution shifted to 53–56%, 45–42% and 1–2% for the Navajo, Entrada and Paradox Formation brine, respectively. Finally, these changes in effluent characteristics further support the hypothesis by Watson et al. (2014) that the mEP and MEP are driven by different sources and mechanisms.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗