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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

The contributions of microclimatic information in advancing ecosystem science

Drawing upon over 100 years of scholarly work on microclimate, we first present an overview of the history, key references, and critical issues surrounding the collection and utilization of microclimate records in ecosystem studies. We place particular emphasis on addressing specific and pressing issues related to the applications of microclimate at the community-ecosystem-landscape level, excluding those of controlled experiment such as growth chambers and greenhouses. Specifically, we: (1) highlight some key issues concerning the collection, quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC), and utilization of microclimatic data in ecosystem studies; (2) revisit microclimatic responses to the structural changes of ecosystems and landscapes; and (3) emphasize the significance of microclimate in understanding major ecosystem/landscape processes and functions. Vapor pressure deficit (VPD) is particularly emphasized for its calculation and use because of its burgeoning applications in the literature. Case studies for each of the three thematic topics are provided with selected references to demonstrate challenges and solutions. As the scientific community gears up to enhance microclimatic stations, we envision significant increases in the use of smart sensors, wireless access, networking, open databases, and computational capabilities. Understanding and addressing some of the issues raised in this synthesis paper may help advance microclimate research and foster collaboration with other relevant disciplines, such as ecosystem science.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hands-On Computer Science: The Array of Things Experimental Urban Instrument

Chicago's Array of Things (AoT) project is aptly described as a technology experiment or a "smart city" prototype. The concept of such an extensible "instrument" arose within a larger translational research vision applying computer science and engineering research for the multidimensional benefit of people and communities in cities. The AoT project hypothesized that wireless intelligent sensor networks could enable both quantitative social science and urban monitoring while also stimulating youth interest in science and technology. Successful deployment of such sensor networks could provide open data from urban measurements not only in support of diverse research questions-in environmental dynamics, urban architecture, engineering, and social sciences-but also informing community groups and city planners. Further, the AoT project and its successor SAGE project are a computer science and engineering experiment, but its success is inextricably tied to community engagement and experiential education. Simply put, community acceptance is a prerequisite to installing and testing the instrument.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Seamless Wireless Communication Platform for Internet of Things Applications

The rapid growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices resulted in the proliferation of wireless technologies to cater to their increasing data rate requirements and support multiple applications. However, such ever-increasing wireless technologies present numerous challenges such as incompatible wireless standards, increased energy consumption, and insecure communication. The traditional gateways proposed in the literature suffers from limitations such as computational complexity, resource requirements, increased cost, and device size. We vision an era of seamless wireless communication to alleviate the aforementioned challenges in IoT applications. through three inter-dependent functionalities namely detection and identification of wireless technologies, energy-efficient transmit power control, and secure end-to-end communication. To prove the concept, a new gateway is proposed to achieve these three functionalities with only physical layer measurements so that the different communication protocols in the higher layers can be avoided. Novel schemes are conceptualized for resource-limited seamless IoT applications. Moreover, the conceptual seamless IoT platform is validated through software-based computer simulation and software-defined radio-based testbed implementation. Finally, the preliminary analysis demonstrates that the proposed platform has great potential in advancing seamless IoT applications.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

xGFabric: Coupling Sensor Networks and HPC Facilities with Private 5G Wireless Networks for Real-Time Digital Agriculture

Advanced scientific applications require coupling distributed sensor networks with centralized high-performance computing facilities. Citrus Under Protective Screening (CUPS) exemplifies this need in digital agriculture, where citrus research facilities are instrumented with numerous sensors monitoring environmental conditions and detecting protective screening damage. CUPS demands access to computational fluid dynamics codes for modeling environmental conditions and guiding real-time interventions like water application or robotic repairs. These computing domains have contrasting properties: sensor networks provide low-performance, limited-capacity, unreliable data access, while high-performance facilities offer enormous computing power through high-latency batch processing. Private 5G networks present novel capabilities addressing this challenge by providing low latency, high throughput, and reliability necessary for near-real-time coupling of edge sensor networks with HPC simulations. This work presents xGFabric, an end-to-end system coupling sensor networks with HPC facilities through Private 5G networks. The prototype connects remote sensors via 5G network slicing to HPC systems, enabling real-time digital agriculture simulation.

Digital Agriculture↗
DOE OSTI2023

TDD LoRa and Delta Encoding in Low-Power Networks of Environmental Sensor Arrays for Temperature and Deformation Monitoring

Abstract Densely distributed sensor networks can revolutionize environmental observations by providing real-time data with an unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. However, field deployments often pose unique challenges in terms of power provisions and wireless connectivity. We present a framework for wirelessly connected distributed sensor arrays for near-surface temperature and/or deformation monitoring. Our research focuses on a novel time division duplex implementation of the LoRa protocol, enabling battery powered base stations and avoiding collisions within the network. In order to minimize transmissions and improve battery life throughout the network, we propose a dedicated delta encoding algorithm that utilizes the spatial and temporal similarity in the acquired data sets. We implemented the developed technologies in a AA battery powered hardware platform that can be used as a wireless data logger or base station, and we conducted an assessment of the power consumption. Without data compression, the projected battery life for a data logger is 4.74 years, and a wireless base stations can last several weeks or months depending on the amount of network traffic. The delta encoding algorithm can further improve this battery life with a factor of up to 3.50. Our results demonstrate the viability of the proposed methods for low-power environmental wireless sensor networks.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Technology Maturation of Wireless Harsh Environment Sensors For Improved Condition Based Monitoring Of Coal Fired Power Generation

The overall goal of this project was to demonstrate and develop the usage of high-temperature (HT) harsh-environment (HE) wireless surface acoustic wave resonator (SAWR) sensor technology to promote reliable maintenance through condition-based maintenance (CBM) for field applications in harsh service conditions associated with power plant environments. The project aimed to advance the HT HE wireless SAWR sensor technology from TRL 5 to TRL 7. In addition to HT HE wireless temperature sensing, efforts were dedicated during this project to investigate, develop and increase the TRL from 3 to 5 for the following technologies: (a) HT HE strain sensors to address additional CBM monitoring needs, such as boiler tube mechanical / thermal stresses, which can provide early indications for boiler tube cracking and failure; and (b) HT aluminum nitride (AlN) and scandium aluminum nitride (ScAlN) based piezoelectric thin film fabrication and implementation of SAW sensors, with the goal of releasing the need to use single crystal piezoelectric materials for SAWRs and thus broaden possible technology applications to non-planar and harder to modify surfaces. To achieve the goals mentioned above, UMaine and its partner, Environetix Technologies Corporation, established partnerships with the following power plants: Longview Power (Maidsville, WV), a coal-fired power plant; Penobscot Energy Recovery Corp (PERC, Orrington, ME), a waste-to-energy power plant; and the UMaine Steam Plant (Orono, ME), an oil / natural gas power plant. To realize wireless HT HE SAWR sensor systems in these harsh service conditions, the University of Maine research team worked with Environetix and these power plants to define, design, fabricate, test and validate a mature prototype wireless temperature SAWR sensor system for boiler tube applications within the HT HE of the reheater pass damper chamber to directly and wirelessly monitor the temperature at eighteen independent boiler tube locations. The system included three levels, or “tiers”, of wireless communication to enable remote monitoring: Tier 1, the wireless link in the reheater pass damper chamber directly accessing the sensors on the boilers; Tier 2, the wireless local area network link, transmitting processed sensor information within the power plant to the Tier 3, a commercial wireless signal carrier company for secure remote data monitoring outside of the power plant. Regarding the wireless sensor system installed at Longview Power, temperature information from the boilers was continuously transmitted from the Longview boilers at Maidsville, WV, to Environetix headquarters, Orono, ME, over a 34 month period, when the system was finally decommissioned. Strain sensors and piezoelectric ScAlN thin film sensors were successfully installed on the exhaust duct at the UMaine Steam Power plant. The advances in wireless strain sensors and thin film piezoelectric film fabrication and testing were performed mostly in UMaine laboratories and field tested at the UMaine Steam Plant, due to its close proximity to UMaine/Environetix, access to the plant facility, and due to difficulties in accessing the other power plants during the COVID shut-down period. The project accomplished the TRL level increase of the targeted CBM technologies through the successful fabrication, installation, test, and validation of dedicated and commercial wireless sensor systems, utilizing the three different power plants. The outcomes of this project, including the wireless sensor data capability, are expected to yield an advance for CBM in harsh power plant environments. The reduction of maintenance costs, improved safety during plant operation, and increased power plant efficiency will lead to increased revenues (i.e., fewer forced outages) due to better process monitoring enabled by the wireless HT HE SAWR temperature sensor technology.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Development and Test of High Temperature Surface Acoustic Wave Gas Sensors

The demand for sensors in hostile environments, such as power plant environments, aerospace environments, oil and gas extraction, and high-temperature metallurgy environments, has risen over the past decades in a continuous attempt to increase process control, improve energy and process efficiency in production, reduce operational and maintenance costs, increase safety, and perform condition-based maintenance in equipment and structures operating in high-temperature harsh-environment conditions. The increased reliability, improved performance, and development of new sensors and networks with a multitude of components, especially wireless networks, are the target for operation in harsh environments. Gas sensors, in particular H2 sensors, operating above 200 C are required in the instrumentation, process control and general safety of a number of industries including coal, natural gas, and nuclear power generation facilities, the aerospace and automotive industries, metallurgical production and defense-related applications. The surface acoustic wave (SAW) platform is a particularly promising option for high-temperature, harsh-environment gas sensing applications since the platform exhibits advantages, such as battery-free and wireless operation, small size, possibility for scale production using well-developed technologies from the semiconductor industry, and low cost of installation and operation. In this work, one-port SAW resonators (SAWRs) operating along five different orientations on a commercially available langasite (LGS) wafer employing Pt-Al2O3 electrodes and reflectors were designed, fabricated, and used as high-temperature H2 sensors. Two of the selected orientations were predicted and confirmed to have temperature-compensated operation above 150 C. A gas sensor test setup was developed, capable of gas cycling between N2, O2 and N2/H2 mixtures under extended high-temperature periods (up to 650 C for over 20 hours). Thin film Pt-Al2O3 was used as the electrode material for the transducers and reflectors capable of high-temperature operation, and also as H2 sensing film. In addition, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) thin films with Pt decoration were tested as sensing films aimed to enhance the SAWR sensor response to H2. The SAW devices were monitored in excess of 1700 hours in real-time during gas cycling sequences up to 600 C, leading to the following findings: i) the Pt-Al2O3 electrodes performed better for H2 sensing than the Pt-decorated YSZ sensing film, showing as much as 50% higher frequency variation response in the 200 C to 400 C range; ii) different crystallographic orientations operating on the same LGS wafer experienced different responses to H2 exposures up to 500 C; iii) the surface oxidation state of the SAWR sensors was shown to have an important impact on subsequent H2 exposure responses. In addition, a sensor system employing two LGS SAWRs, aligned along two different orientations, has been developed to simultaneously determine H2 presence and temperature. Finally, wireless interrogation of a SAWR sensor was successful within the gas cycling test fixture, and successful wireless H2 detection was achieved above 400 C.

Ayes Moncada, Armando↗
DOE OSTI2025

Wireless Patch Antenna Characterization for Live Health Monitoring Using Machine Learning

Temperature monitoring in extreme environments, such as coal-fired power plants, was addressed by designing and testing wireless patch antennas for use in machine learning-aided temperature estimation. The sensors were designed to monitor the temperature and health of boiler systems. Wireless interrogation of the sensor was performed using a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) and a pair of interrogation antennas to capture resonance behavior under varying thermal and spatial conditions with sensitivities ranging from 0.052 to 0.20 $\frac{𝑀𝐻𝑧}{°C}$. Sensor calibration was conducted using a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) model, which leveraged temporal patterns to account for hysteresis effects. The calibration method demonstrated improved performance when combined with an LSTM model, achieving up to a 76% improvement in temperature estimation error when compared with Linear Regression (LR). The experiments highlighted an innovative solution for patch antenna-based non-contact temperature measurement, which addresses limitations with conventional methods such as RFID-based systems, infrared, and thermocouples.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Sub-nanosecond RF synchronization for MIMO software defined radio sensor networks

This disclosure presents distributed and decentralized synchronization for wireless transceivers. The disclosed system, device, and method achieve sub-nanosecond synchronization using low-cost commercial off the shelf software defined radios. By providing a decentralized mechanism that does not rely on a hierarchical master-slave structure, networks constructed as disclosed are robust to sensor drop-out in contested or harsh environments. Such networks may be used to create phased array radars and communication systems without requiring wired connections to distribute a common clock or local oscillator reference.

Moghaddam, Mahta↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thin Film Hydrogen Sensor Development, Testing and Integration Into Low Cost Wireless Sensing Systems (SBIR Phase 1 Final Report)

Element One, Inc. is reporting on the results of its DOE SBIR Phase I project for the development and testing of low-cost thin film hydrogen sensors and their subsequent integration into wireless sensing systems and networks. This work is based on Element One’s chemo-chromic sensing technology which indicates hydrogen presence (leaks) colorimetrically and electronically with no power required. The lack of required power makes them particularly suitable for passive Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID) technology which can be deployed affordably and abundantly to detect leaks in hazardous environments. Element One built upon its experience with chemochromic materials that change color in the presence of hydrogen. Both thin films and pigments have been used, but thin films have the ability to change conductivity by more than three orders of magnitude making them ideal for resistive sensors. Prototype sensors were fabricated, tested and characterized. For the wireless component, Element One partnered with Esensor, Inc. to construct and test a wireless sensing network. The network was tested and validated at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in February and March. The tests involved exposing the wireless system to hydrogen gas concentrations of 1% and 5%. There were no significant problems encountered, and the system is ready for commercial development. The system demonstrated the viability of wireless hydrogen sensing networks for hydrogen leak detection and other applications.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Sap Velocity Data for Urban Trees in Chicago, Illinois (2024-2025)

This dataset contains uncorrected sap velocity measurements using the heat ratio method (HRM) collected using ICT International SFM1x sensors at five urban sites in Chicago, Illinois, as part of the DOE CROCUS project. The data includes continuous monitoring of sap velocity from various tree species, including Maples (Acer spp.): Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum), and Red Maple (Acer rubrum); Oaks (Quercus spp.): Swamp White Oak (Quercus bicolor); American Elm (Ulmus americana); Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos); Cottonwood (Populus deltoides); and Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) across Chicago State University (CSU), Northeastern Illinois University (NEIU), Northwestern University (NU), University of Illinois Chicago (UIC), and West Woodlawn "Blacks in Green" (BIG). These include both street trees and those in urban park locations. Measurements were collected at 15-20 minute intervals, depending on the sensor, and transmitted via Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) protocols. The wireless data was collected by Sage Network (https://sagecontinuum.org/) nodes. The dataset includes sensor ID, Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates, tree species (common and scientific names), tree identification number, diameter at breast height (DBH in cm), uncorrected sap velocity measurements (cm/hr) from both inner and outer probes, and Sage Node identifiers so the data can be mapped to related variables such as air quality and wind speed that were collected on the Sage nodes. All timestamps are in local Chicago time (CDT/CST). Quality control flags are provided using a 3-bit binary system indicating physical range violations (< -10 or > 60 cm/hr), step spikes (absolute difference > 36 cm/hr), and stuck sensor conditions (> 10 consecutive identical values). These are raw data, not corrected for wood anatomy or species-specific characteristics. Data is provided in comma separated (CSV) format. This dataset is part of a larger collection of CROCUS environmental monitoring data, including linked datasets from Air Quality Transmitter (AQT) sensors, Weather Transmitter (WXT) sensors, and Multi-Function Research LoRaWAN (MFR) Nodes. DOIs for the supporting data are provided as part of this data package.

Chicago↗
DOE OSTI2020

5G Enabled Energy Innovation: Advanced Wireless Networks for Science

Digital wireless communication has become a foundational technology for the nation. The U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science (DOE-SC) is the Nation’s largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences discovering new materials, designing advanced microelectronics, and understanding the physics of radio frequency signaling. The expanding national rollout of a new fifth-generation (5G) mobile network, coupled with the torrent of scientific data generated by next-generation devices such as battery-powered Internet of Things (IoT) sensors, has created an urgent need to enhance cutting-edge wireless technology. Breakthroughs in the deployment, integration, security, and operational range of wireless networking can provide new scientific capabilities for the next decade - from autonomous mobile instruments for scientific user facilities to intelligent sensors networks distributed over thousands of kilometers to study environmental processes. To realize this promise, however, we must continue to drive innovations in computing, artificial intelligence (AI), advanced materials, high-speed networking, and microelectronics. In March 2020, the DOE-SC convened a workshop to identify the potential opportunities and explore the scientific challenges of advanced wireless technologies.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

WHISPER: Wireless Home Identification and Sensing Platform for Energy Reduction

Many regions of the world benefit from heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems to provide productive, comfortable, and healthy indoor environments, which are enabled by automatic building controls. Due to climate change, population growth, and industrialization, HVAC use is globally on the rise. Unfortunately, these systems often operate in a continuous fashion without regard to actual human presence, leading to unnecessary energy consumption. As a result, the heating, ventilation, and cooling of unoccupied building spaces makes a substantial contribution to the harmful environmental impacts associated with carbon-based electric power generation, which is important to remedy. For our modern electric power system, transitioning to low-carbon renewable energy is facilitated by integration with distributed energy resources. Automatic engagement between the grid and consumers will be necessary to enable a clean yet stable electric grid, when integrating these variable and uncertain renewable energy sources. We present the WHISPER (Wireless Home Identification and Sensing Platform for Energy Reduction) system to address the energy and power demand triggered by human presence in homes. The presented system includes a maintenance-free and privacy-preserving human occupancy detection system wherein a local wireless network of battery-free environmental, acoustic energy, and image sensors are deployed to monitor homes, record empirical data for a range of monitored modalities, and transmit it to a base station. Several machine learning algorithms are implemented at the base station to infer human presence based on the received data, harnessing a hierarchical sensor fusion algorithm. Results from the prototype system demonstrate an accuracy in human presence detection in excess of 95%; ongoing commercialization efforts suggest approximately 99% accuracy. Using machine learning, WHISPER enables various applications based on its binary occupancy prediction, allowing situation-specific controls targeted at both personalized smart home and electric grid modernization opportunities.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solid-State Mixed-Potential Electrochemical Sensors for Natural Gas Leak Detection and Quality Control (Final Technical Report)

Mitigation of methane emissions are a critical factor to limiting the impact of the natural gas industry on global climate change. Throughout the period of 2020-2024, the University of New Mexico and its commercialization partner and subcontractor, SensorComm Technologies, Inc. (SCT), have worked together to develop a low-cost Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven Internet of Things (IoT)-based multi-gas sensor platform for methane emissions detection. In the final year of the project, we extended this work to include hydrogen detection in support of a transition to a hydrogen economy where hydrogen could be transported through existing natural gas infrastructure. Mixed potential electrochemical sensors were first prototyped by ceramic additive manufacturing and then transitioned to conventional ceramic manufacturing tape casting and screen-printing technologies in preparation for mass production. Demonstrated limits of detection of 5 ppm of methane in natural gas and 1 ppm of hydrogen were measured. These limits of detection are among the lowest of solid-state electrochemical sensors that have been reported in the literature or available in the industry. Machine learning algorithms were developed to identify natural gas mixtures with > 98% accuracy level and quantify methane concentrations at 97% accuracy. The presence of hydrogen could also be identified, and its concentration quantified at these accuracy levels. These algorithms were optimized for running on portable computing hardware which enabled > 1 Hz processing rates. A portable packaged IoT system was integrated with the electrochemical sensor in collaboration with SCT. The package consists of readout electronics with < 1 mV resolution, sensor temperature control, and data transmission over cellular wireless and/or Wi-Fi networks. Field testing was performed in two rounds at Colorado State University’s Methane Emissions Technology Evaluation Center (CSU METEC). The first round of testing demonstrated successful measurements of methane from an underground natural gas leak of 20 standard liters per minute (SLPM), which agreed with previously published literature using more sophisticated and expensive analytical equipment. The second round of testing showed that an above ground leak of 2 SLPM of hydrogen could be detected at 32 ft. This project has resulted in six published peer reviewed journal articles, over ten presentations at professional conferences, and one full patent application filed in 2023. Future work on this project includes increased sensitivity, higher production yields, and applications in the hydrogen safety and flare emissions monitoring spaces.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2026

A network of soil moisture, soil temperature, air temperature, net radiation, ground heat flux and ground water for Chicago, Illinois

This dataset contains environmental monitoring data collected using solar-powered Multi-Function Research (MFR) Long Range Wide Area (LoRaWAN)-enabled nodes at 11 sites in Chicago, Illinois, as part of the DOE Urban Integrated Field Lab CROCUS project. The MFR node system consists of an Input/Output Digital Input Module (IB8) interface box (ICT International) providing wired connections for environmental sensors and an MFR-Node-L data logger that manages power, data processing, and LoRaWAN communication. The wireless data are ingested via Sage network (https://sagecontinuum.org/) nodes that contain LoRaWAN antennae. Measurements were collected from 11 MFR nodes deployed across Chicago State University (CSU), Northeastern Illinois University (NEIU), Northwestern University (NU), University of Illinois Chicago (UIC), West Woodlawn "Blacks in Green" (BIG), and Indian Boundary Prairies (IBP). Each MFR node supports a consistent suite of sensors measuring atmospheric, soil, and hydrological variables. Atmospheric measurements include 2m air temperature (°C), 2m vapor pressure deficit (kPa), and 2m shortwave/longwave radiation (incoming and outgoing, W/m²) measured using ATH-VPD and Apogee SN500 sensors. Soil measurements include volumetric water content (VWC, %) and temperature (°C) at four depths (15, 30, 45, and 60 cm below surface) using Meter Teros54 sensors, and heat flux (W/m²) at 10 cm depth using Huske HFP01-05 sensors. At selected locations, Meter Hydros21 sensors measure groundwater depth (mm), specific conductivity (dS/m), and temperature (°C). The dataset includes timestamps, site identifiers with location names, device IDs, Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates, variable names with units, measurement depths, values, sensor names, and Sage node identifiers. All timestamps are in local Chicago time (CDT/CST). Quality control flags are provided using a 6-bit binary system indicating physical range violations, step spikes, 24-hour flat-line conditions, 6-hour jitter, 7-day ultra-low variance, and persistent high offset. Data is provided in CSV and CF-compliant NetCDF formats. This dataset is part of a larger collection of CROCUS environmental monitoring data, including linked datasets from Air Quality Transmitter (AQT) sensors, Weather Transmitter (WXT) sensors, and Sap Flow Meter (SFM1x) sensors.

Chicago↗
DOE OSTI2024

7-8 GHz Point-to-Point Testing

Wireless spectrum is a limiting resource for continued economic growth in the United States. As discussed in the recent National Spectrum Strategy (NSS), wireless spectrum underpins several aspects of the U.S. economy and the demand for additional spectrum is driving the need for realizing spectrum sharing to enable continued development. At the same time, wireless spectrum is an essential foundation of critical energy infrastructure, including electric, oil, and natural gas resources. In particular, wireless point-to-point (P2P) links are the backbone of vast infrastructure networks that enable the flow of sensor and control information needed to manage critical energy sector infrastructure in the United States. These links will only become more important as the energy sector incorporates more diverse sensing and more efficient control mechanisms, which increases system complexity and data volume requiring more resilient communications. Therefore, the continued economic development of the U.S. depends on determining novel approaches to spectrum management that balance both broad access for advanced wireless technologies and resilience for critical infrastructure.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗