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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Custom-designed heat treatment simultaneously resolves multiple challenges facing 3D-printed single-crystal superalloys

Single-crystal Ni-based superalloys are currently the material of choice for turbine blade applications, especially with the emerging additive manufacturing (AM) that facilitates the manufacture/repair of these single crystals. This promising AM route, however, comes with a dilemma: in the fusion and heat affected zones after e-beam or laser induced melting, one needs a solutionizing annealing to relieve the residual stresses and homogenize the chemical/microstructure. The super-solvus solutionizing temperature is usually adopted from the protocol for the cast superalloys, which almost always causes recrystallization and stray grain growth, resulting in a polycrystalline microstructure and degrading the high-temperature mechanical performance. Here, in this paper, we demonstrate a custom-designed post-printing heat treatment to replace the conventional super-solvus one. The recovery and relatively low temperature diminish the driving force for recrystallization and the movement of stray grain boundaries, without suffocating the chemical/microstructural homogenization thanks to the narrow dendrite width and short element segregation distance. The optimal duration of the heat treatment is proposed to achieve atomic-diffusion mediated chemical homogenization while limiting γ'-particle coarsening in the interdendritic regions. Our strategy makes it practically feasible to resolve several bottleneck problems with one processing/treatment, removing a seemingly formidable obstacle to effective additive manufacturing of superalloy single crystal products.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Tetrahedral Tilting and Lithium‐Ion Transport in Halide Argyrodites Prepared by Rapid, Microwave‐Assisted Synthesis

Abstract This study demonstrates a rapid, dry, microwave‐assisted (MW) synthesis method that enables preparation of halide argyrodites ( , , ) in less than 20 min. The structures and ion transport properties of the resulting materials are compared with those synthesized by conventional solid‐state synthesis methods. The microwave‐assisted method leads to increased site disorder and elevated Arrhenius prefactors (), which lead to an order of magnitude improvement in the 30 ionic conductivity of MW‐. X‐ray pair distribution function analysis (XPDF) reveals significant rotational disorder of the units, which is impacted by the synthesis method, choice of halide, and presence of / site disorder. These rotational displacements are strongly correlated with ion transport, specifically and entropy of migration (). Overall, this study demonstrates a rapid synthesis route for preparing high‐quality halide argyrodite solid‐state electrolytes in less than 20 min, and further unravels atomistic insights into the interplay of structural disorder, rotational dynamics, and ion transport mechanisms.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Transit Rider/Travel Behavior Inventory Survey - Minneapolis-St. Paul Metro - 2005

The survey was an on-board survey of transit riders on all regular route services for bus and light-rail in the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area. The primary purpose of the study was to gather the data needed to update the mode choice models that are an integral component of the regional travel forecast model maintained by the Metropolitan Council, the metropolitan planning organization for the Minneapolis-Saint Paul metropolitan area. The survey instrument focused on identifying characteristics of the trip taken by each transit rider, including origin, destination, trip purpose, and mode of access. The survey also collected relevant socioeconomic and demographic information.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

A mesoscopic link-transmission-model able to track individual vehicles

Macroscopic traffic flow is a common choice for large-scale traffic simulations. These models do not provide individual-specific metrics as outputs. However, this treatment is necessary in agent-based-models, as in, for example, assigning routes based on personal characteristics. Here, in this paper, we propose an extension of the link-transmission-model, an efficient and yet accurate discretization of the Lighthill-Whitham-Richards (LWR) model, which allow vehicles to be tracked individually while keeping the main features of the underlying model. The extension comprises modifying the link and node models to ensure that the flow between links is always at discrete levels. Therefore, every unit of flow is associated with one individual vehicle moving from its current to its next link. An upper bound of the discretization error is provided. We show that the proposed model resembles its continuous counterpart on lane drop, merge, and diverge cases. In addition, we apply the model into three different networks to validate its applicability in large networks. Finally, we also confirm the parameter transferability between continuous and discrete models and that both can well reproduce field data.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2026

Design Principles for the Synthesis of Self-Pillared ZSM-5 Zeolite Nanosheets

The design of next-generation materials for emerging energy and environmental applications heavily relies on empirical approaches to direct nonclassical nucleation and crystal growth pathways, polymorphism, intercrystalline transformations, and seed-assisted growth processes. A long-standing obstacle to nanoporous materials design is the complexity of their crystallization, which hinders the development of predictive models and/or physical descriptors that can guide their synthesis. In this study, we use a combination of state-of-the-art synthesis, characterization, and computational design to prepare hierarchical MFI-type zeolites, which we couple with benchmark catalytic testing to assess structure-property-performance relationships. These hierarchical materials are intergrowths of two commercially relevant zeolite frameworks, MFI and MEL, prepared as self-pillared pentasil (SPP) zeolites through seed-assisted, organic-free syntheses for which little theoretical guidance existed. Here, by comparing a large library of zeolite seeds with different pore sizes, dimensions, and structural composite building units, we determined the relative impact of seed and silica source selection, among other synthesis variables. Combined experimental and computational studies are used to test several hypotheses in literature to rationalize the choice of seed structure and establish a more robust selection criteria for seed-assisted synthesis of zeolites. Specifically, we show that a data-driven approach to develop structural descriptors correlates to new, facile routes to rationally design SPP zeolites, addressing knowledge gaps in the fundamental understanding of (non)classical crystal growth mechanisms that are characteristic of nanoporous aluminosilicates.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Prediction of topological phases in metastable ferromagnetic $MPX_3$ monolayers

Density functional theory calculations are carried out to study the electronic and topological properties of MPX 3 (M = Mn, Fe, Co,Ni; X = S, Se) monolayers in the ferromagnetic (FM) metastable magnetic state. Here we find that FM MnPSe 3 monolayers host topological semimetal signatures that are gapped out when spin-orbit coupling is included. These findings are supported by explicit calculations of the Berry curvature and the Chern number. The choice of the Hubbard-U parameter to describe the d-electrons is thoroughly discussed, as well as the influence of using a hybrid-functional approach. The presence of band inversions and the associated topological features are found to be formalism-dependent. Nevertheless, routes to achieve the topological phase via the application of external biaxial strain are demonstrated. Within the hybrid-functional picture, topological band structures are recovered under a pressure of 15% (17 GPa). The present work provides a potential avenue for uncovering new topological phases in metastable ferromagnetic phases.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2023

An Inverse-Designed Nanophotonic Interface for Excitons in Atomically Thin Materials

Efficient nanophotonic devices are essential for applications in quantum networking, optical information processing, sensing, and nonlinear optics. Extensive research efforts have focused on integrating two-dimensional (2D) materials into photonic structures, but this integration is often limited by size and material quality. Here, we use hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), a benchmark choice for encapsulating atomically thin materials, as a waveguiding layer while simultaneously improving the optical quality of the embedded films. When combined with a photonic inverse design, it becomes a complete nanophotonic platform to interface with optically active 2D materials. Grating couplers and low-loss waveguides provide optical interfacing and routing, tunable cavities provide a large exciton-photon coupling to transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) monolayers through Purcell enhancement, and metasurfaces enable the efficient detection of TMD dark excitons. This work paves the way for advanced 2D-material nanophotonic structures for classical and quantum nonlinear optics.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2022

A new route to obtain fluorescence X-ray absorption spectra of compounds and to remove the self-absorption induced nonlinearity in the spectra

A new route to obtain fluorescence X-ray absorption spectra of compounds and to remove the self-absorption induced nonlinearity in the spectra is described. The fluorescent intensity If is linearly proportional to the absorption coefficient μ. For studies of surface structures around an element (κ) the fluorescence detection is often the mode of choice. However, the measurement may suffer from a self-absorption (SA) effect which nonlinearly distorts the spectra. The effect is severe when κ is concentrated or the measurements are carried out in certain geometries. Here, the correlations among emission events in compounds are examined following resonance X-ray core-electron excitation within κ. Under conditions leading to SA, If emitted from κ apparently has a conjugated relationship with the fluorescent intensities simultaneously emitted from other elements (ξ). Normalizing the former (κ) by the latter (ξ) will largely remove SA effects and reduce this nonlinear problem to a tractable linear problem. This does result in a moderate reduction of the spectral amplitude due to the so-called secondary emission from ξ excited by the emission from κ. Nonetheless, the resulting spectra will allow one to accurately determine bond distances and disorder and, in some respects, can be superior to spectra obtained via the absorption channel. For μξ < μκ and grazing incidence geometry, the amplitude reduction can be small and simple normalization is sufficient to restore the spectral integrity with remarkable accuracy. This has been instrumental in unravelling the surface and subsurface structures around cations in amorphous Ga–In–O and Zn–Sn–O films which are otherwise inaccessible due to severe SA effects. This method has also been applied to several samples with μξ ≃ μκ to examine its applicability. For these samples, the amplitude reduction is 12 ± 4% versus their standards for the data measured with the classical 45°/45° geometry. This experimental method is easy to implement. Since If from κ and ξ are measured by the same detector system, it is also superior to other methods in removing systematic errors such as detector system nonlinearity, electronic noise, and some beam instabilities, and in removing spectral imperfections due to, for example, SA effects, diffraction effects and sample inhomogeneity. The distortions resulting from the latter can be severe in the spectra measured in transmission mode.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Organic Electrochemical Transistor Channel Materials: Copolymerization Versus Physical Mixing of Glycolated and Alkoxylated Polymers

Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) feature a polymer channel capable of conducting both ions and electronic charges. The choice of the channel material is critical for OECT performance. Many efforts have focused on improving performance via the chemical tunability of conjugated polymers – through backbone, side chain, and molar mass engineering – leading to useful design principles for accumulation-mode OECT materials. However, tuning the chemical structure of conjugated polymers often requires time-consuming optimization of the synthesis route. Meanwhile, variations in molar mass, dispersity, structural defects, and metal content present challenges when attempting to analyze the detailed effects of structural modifications, as multiple performance-determining factors are often (unintentionally) changed at the same time. Therefore, this study explores blended channel materials obtained by physically mixing glycolated and alkoxylated polymers in different ratios, and compares their OECT performance with the corresponding statistical copolymers. It is shown that mixing two well-performing materials creates blends that enable rational tuning of the transistor properties without compromising on performance. Thus, channels based on blends of alkoxylated and glycolated polymers hold promise for OECT technology with tailored response, as only two materials are needed to achieve any desired side chain ratio, simplifying the optimization of OECT characteristics.

copolymerization↗
DOE OSTI2021

Many routes to ferroelectric HfO 2 : A review of current deposition methods

Although 10 years have passed since the initial report of ferroelectricity in hafnia (HfO 2 ), researchers are still intensely fascinated by this material system and the promise it holds for future applications. A wide variety of deposition methods have been deployed to create ferroelectric HfO 2 thin films such as atomic layer deposition, chemical solution deposition, and physical vapor deposition methods such as sputtering and pulsed laser deposition. Process and design parameters such as deposition temperature, precursor choice, target source, vacuum level, reactive gases, substrate strain, and many others are often integral in stabilizing the polar orthorhombic phase and ferroelectricity. We examine processing parameters across four main different deposition methods and their effect on film microstructure, phase evolution, defect concentration, and resultant electrical properties. The goal of this review is to integrate the process knowledge collected over the past 10 years in the field of ferroelectric HfO 2 into a single comprehensive guide for the design of future HfO 2 -based ferroelectric materials and devices.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Circumventing Kinetic Barriers to Metal Hydride Formation with Metal–Ligand Cooperativity

We report the two-electron, one-proton mechanism of cobalt hydride formation for the conversion of [Co III Cp(P Ph 2 N Bn 2 )(CH 3 CN)] 2+ to [HCo III Cp(P Ph 2 NBn 2 )] + . This complex catalytically converts CO 2 to formate under CO 2 reduction conditions, with hydride formation as a key elementary step. Through a combination of electrochemical measurements, digital simulations, theoretical calculations, and additional mechanistic and thermochemical studies, we outline the explicit role of the P Ph 2 N Bn 2 ligand in the proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactivity that leads to hydride formation. We reveal three unique PCET mechanisms, and we show that the amine on the P Ph 2 N Bn 2 ligand serves as a kinetically accessible protonation site en route to the thermodynamically favored cobalt hydride. Cyclic voltammograms recorded with proton sources that span a wide range of pK a values show four distinct regimes where the mechanism changes as a function of acid strength, acid concentration, and timescale between electrochemical steps. Peak shift analysis was used to determine proton transfer rate constants where applicable. Furthermore, this work highlights the astute choices that must be made when designing catalytic systems, including the basicity and kinetic accessibility of protonation sites, acid strength, acid concentration, and timescale between electron transfer steps, to maximize catalyst stability and efficiency.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Electrifying Transit: A Guidebook for Implementing Battery Electric Buses

This guidebook is organized to give transit decision-makers and relevant stakeholders an overview of BEB facts, data, and considerations important for planning their implementation in a variety of jurisdictions. First, the benefits and barriers for BEB are identified. Second, BEB basics in terms of the major components, including a) the bus, b) the battery, and c) the numerous charging options. BEB introduces new, high demand loads as the buses are charging and thus have a number of interactions with the electricity grid and the utility, which are explored third. Operation and maintenance of BEBs are considered fourth as BEBs should not be operated and maintained in the same approach as diesel buses. Fifth, the costs of BEB prices are summarized – and the choices of bus and battery are explored in how they impact BEB prices. Funding and financing options that support BEBs and their charging stations are also explored. Safety is a key consideration for BEBs and the guidebook touches upon codes and standards, hazards, and emergencies. The final section examines project execution, bringing together information from all the other sections so that long-term planning, route analysis, and fleet and infrastructure planning can be considered in the preparation of BEB deployment, and then deployment can be evaluated on a regular basis. A final conclusion revisits the information covered in the guidebook.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Modified Calcium Manganites for Thermochemical Energy Storage Applications

CaAl 0.2 Mn 0.8 O 3-δ (CAM28) and CaTi 0.2 Mn 0.8 O 3-δ (CTM28) are perovskite metal oxides developed for high-temperature thermochemical energy storage (TCES) applications, e.g., in support of air Brayton power generation. Previous reports for these compounds focus on the equilibrium non-stoichiometry (δ) as a function of temperature and oxygen partial pressure (pO 2 ) and the endotherm (or exotherm) accompanying changes in δ resulting from thermal reduction (or re-oxidation). Herein, we report results for elemental substitution and doping (Al, Co, Fe, La, Sr, Ti, Y, Zn, and Zr) of calcium manganites (CM) that establish the preference for CAM28 and CTM28. Techniques employed include conventional (screening and equilibrium) and ballistically heated multi-cycle thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), conventional and high temperature ( in-situ ) X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Forward-looking results for A-site Y-doped materials, e.g., Ca 0.9 Y 0.1 MnO 3-δ (CYM910), establish a route to increasing the reduction enthalpy relative to CAM28 and CTM28, albeit at the expense of increased reduction temperatures and raw materials costs. A thermodynamic model presented for CAM28, but extendable to related materials, provides values for the reaction enthalpy and extent of reduction as a function of temperature and oxygen partial pressure for use in design efforts. Taken as a whole, the results support the choice of Al-doped CaMnO 3-δ as a low-cost material for TCES in a high temperature air Brayton application, but point the way to achieving higher stored energy densities that could lead to overall cost savings.

Miller, James E.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Compiling Quantum Circuits for Dynamically Field-Programmable Neutral Atoms Array Processors

Dynamically field-programmable qubit arrays (DPQA) have recently emerged as a promising platform for quantum information processing. In DPQA, atomic qubits are selectively loaded into arrays of optical traps that can be reconfigured during the computation itself. Leveraging qubit transport and parallel, entangling quantum operations, different pairs of qubits, even those initially far away, can be entangled at different stages of the quantum program execution. Such reconfigurability and non-local connectivity present new challenges for compilation, especially in the layout synthesis step which places and routes the qubits and schedules the gates. In this paper, we consider a DPQA architecture that contains multiple arrays and supports 2D array movements, representing cutting-edge experimental platforms. Within this architecture, we discretize the state space and formulate layout synthesis as a satisfiability modulo theories problem, which can be solved by existing solvers optimally in terms of circuit depth. For a set of benchmark circuits generated by random graphs with complex connectivities, our compiler OLSQ-DPQA reduces the number of two-qubit entangling gates on small problem instances by 1.7x compared to optimal compilation results on a fixed planar architecture. To further improve scalability and practicality of the method, we introduce a greedy heuristic inspired by the iterative peeling approach in classical integrated circuit routing. Using a hybrid approach that combined the greedy and optimal methods, we demonstrate that our DPQA-based compiled circuits feature reduced scaling overhead compared to a grid fixed architecture, resulting in 5.1X less two-qubit gates for 90 qubit quantum circuits. These methods enable programmable, complex quantum circuits with neutral atom quantum computers, as well as informing both future compilers and future hardware choices.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2023

Encoding trade-offs and design toolkits in quantum algorithms for discrete optimization: coloring, routing, scheduling, and other problems

Challenging combinatorial optimization problems are ubiquitous in science and engineering. Several quantum methods for optimization have recently been developed, in different settings including both exact and approximate solvers. Addressing this field of research, this manuscript has three distinct purposes. First, we present an intuitive method for synthesizing and analyzing discrete (i.e., integer-based) optimization problems, wherein the problem and corresponding algorithmic primitives are expressed using a discrete quantum intermediate representation (DQIR) that is encoding-independent. This compact representation often allows for more efficient problem compilation, automated analyses of different encoding choices, easier interpretability, more complex runtime procedures, and richer programmability, as compared to previous approaches, which we demonstrate with a number of examples. Second, we perform numerical studies comparing several qubit encodings; the results exhibit a number of preliminary trends that help guide the choice of encoding for a particular set of hardware and a particular problem and algorithm. Our study includes problems related to graph coloring, the traveling salesperson problem, factory/machine scheduling, financial portfolio rebalancing, and integer linear programming. Third, we design low-depth graph-derived partial mixers (GDPMs) up to 16-level quantum variables, demonstrating that compact (binary) encodings are more amenable to QAOA than previously understood. We expect this toolkit of programming abstractions and low-level building blocks to aid in designing quantum algorithms for discrete combinatorial problems.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2024

Transportation and Systems Analysis Collaborations in Support of a Federal Consolidated Interim Storage Facility

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Integrated Waste Management (IWM) program under the Office of Nuclear Energy is planning for the future transportation, storage, and eventual disposal of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level radioactive waste (HLW) from nuclear power plant sites across the United States. To better enable informed decision-making regarding the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle, the IWM program has been sponsoring the development and application of system analysis tools capable of analyzing various options for managing SNF and HLW. With these tools, integrated waste management system (IWMS) architecture analyses are being conducted to support the future deployment of a comprehensive nuclear waste management system that considers all major back-end aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle (i.e., transportation, storage, and disposal). System analyses and assessments typically use these modeling and simulation tools to investigate implications of changes in various assumptions and parameters such as acceptance rates, receipt logic, facility capacities and capabilities, use of standardized canisters, start and stop dates of facilities, etc. The Next Generation System Analysis Model (NGSAM) is an agent-based simulation toolkit that is used for a system-level simulation and analysis focused on SNF management in the United States. An analyst using NGSAM has the ability to define several factors like the number of storage facilities, capacity at each facility, transportation schedules, shipment rates, and other conditions. NGSAM’s primary purpose is to provide a system analyst with capabilities to model the IWMS and gain insights into SNF and HLW management alternatives including the impact of system choices, associated cost estimates, and development of integrated yet flexible approaches. IWM is also developing the Stakeholder Tool for Assessing Radioactive Transportation (START). START is a web-based geospatial tool developed to provide visualization and initial evaluation of transportation options associated with future SNF and HLW shipment planning and operations. This includes characterizing safety, economic, and environmental conditions on and in proximity to shipment origins as well as along prospective transportation routes. Information from the START tool can be presented/shared as maps, graphics, geospatial files, and tabular form to enable easy data representation and export functionality. The system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams had been working closely for several years before formalizing this collaboration. START provides the SNF routing information for use in NGSAM. System analysts use the NGSAM tool to generate results (schedule, costs, infrastructure acquisitions, shipment rates, etc.). Subject-matter experts and system analysts work together to inform how NGSAM should model the waste management system. Specifically, this paper discusses the collaborations between the system analysis, NGSAM, and START teams and their accomplishments over the past year. Some examples of these efforts include calibrating and adding data to the START output files to meet NGSAM needs, gaining a better understanding of START data used in NGSAM, as well as how updates in START data could result in an improved NGSAM analysis. Detailed examples of various tasks that have been performed by the team will be discussed in the full paper. Continued efforts in this direction are expected in the coming years.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Analyzing users’ preferences between personal and pooled rideshare services using a mixed logit modeling approach

Ridesharing has become an increasingly popular transportation method over the past decade. Transportation network companies such as Uber and Lyft generally provide two types of rideshare services: personal rideshare, in which users ride alone or with individuals they know, and pooled rideshare, in which users ride with passengers they do not know but share similar routes. Pooled rideshare is capable of reducing energy consumption and traffic in the transportation system in comparison to personal rideshare. Despite the growth in trip volume, ridesharing usage is still low compared to other popular transportation methods in the U.S., particularly traveling in one’s own personal vehicle. Furthermore, pooled rideshare usage is lower than personal rideshare. To understand riders’ preferences, a national survey (N = 2884) was conducted in the U.S. to investigate users’ choice behaviors in rideshare services examining personal versus pooled rideshare. Each survey respondent completed 20 stated-preference scenarios where participants choose between a personal or pooled rideshare option. Based on the responses, a mixed logit model was developed to capture the choice behavior preferences of the participants. The model unveiled the impact of demographic and trip attribute variables on users’ rideshare preferences. The discussion encompassed insights into demographic backgrounds and trip attributes, accompanied by a set of policy recommendations aimed at enhancing future pooled rideshare utilization.

Choice model↗
DOE OSTI2024

Metabolic flux optimization of iterative pathways through orthogonal gene expression control: Application to the β-oxidation reversal

Balancing relative expression of pathway genes to minimize flux bottlenecks and metabolic burden is one of the key challenges in metabolic engineering. This is especially relevant for iterative pathways, such as reverse β-oxidation (rBOX) pathway, which require control of flux partition at multiple nodes to achieve efficient synthesis of target products. Here, we develop a plasmid-based inducible system for orthogonal control of gene expression (referred to as the TriO system) and demonstrate its utility in the rBOX pathway. Leveraging effortless construction of TriO vectors in a plug-and-play manner, we simultaneously explored the solution space for enzyme choice and relative expression levels. Remarkably, varying individual expression levels led to substantial change in product specificity ranging from no production to optimal performance of about 90% of the theoretical yield of the desired products. We obtained titers of 6.3 g/L butyrate, 2.2 g/L butanol and 4.0 g/L hexanoate from glycerol in E. coli, which exceed the best titers previously reported using equivalent enzyme combinations. Since a similar system behavior was observed with alternative termination routes and higher-order iterations, we envision our approach to be broadly applicable to other iterative pathways besides the rBOX. Here, considering that high throughput, automated strain construction using combinatorial promoter and RBS libraries remain out of reach for many researchers, especially in academia, tools like the TriO system could democratize the testing and evaluation of pathway designs by reducing cost, time and infrastructure requirements.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗