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The Novel Charfuel® Coal Refining Process 18 TPD Pilot Plant Project for Co- Producing an Upgraded Coal Product, and Commercially Valuable Co- Products: Area of Interest #3 – Coal Beneficiation Pilot Plant Testing (Final Report)

Operation of Carbon Fuels, LLC’s (“CF”) existing, permitted 18 TPD pilot plant located in Golden, Colorado using two individually ranked (ASTM D 388) coal types (two campaigns), employing the novel Charfuel® coal refining process to produce an upgraded coal product and a number of high-valued organic and inorganic coproducts (for which there presently exists large commercial markets) in order to produce engineering and product data which will then be utilized toward the design of a commercial scale integrated facility (pre-feed document). Carbon Fuels, LLC has developed the Charfuel® Coal Refining Process which refines domestically abundant, raw coal (in the same manner as crude oil is refined) to produce the identical, high value co-products that are refined from crude oil. Thus, gasoline, jet fuel, “green diesel”, fuel oil, and marine fuels, as well as petrochemicals such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and methanol are refined from raw coal using this process. The Charfuel® Coal Refining Process is not a coal conversion process, like pyrolysis, or indirect liquefaction. Nor is it an alternative energy system. Rather it is a coal refining process that has the ability to economically produce products traditionally associated with the refining of crude oil but using only abundant, raw coal as the refinery feed stock. The Charfuel® Coal Refining Process is more economical than crude oil refining and is environmentally benign. Therefore, this value added process yields a return on investment well above 50% for a commercial facility. Furthermore, the Charfuel® process, unlike alternatives such as ethanol and hydrogen, can utilize the existing transportation, delivery, and other petroleum based systems. Hence, there is no need for new engines, pipelines, tankers, or product acceptance. As a result, the profitability of the process is increased. Objectives: (1) Operation of the integrated 18 tpd pilot plant, using two coal types (ranks); (2) Demonstration of process flexibility in being able to produce different products (gas, liquid, and char), as well as determination of operating parameters for identifying scale up criteria for two coal types (ranks); (3) Generation of engineering and design information (process specifications) for use in designing a commercial scale plant (scale-up); (4) Determination of important environmental issues surrounding the process and the products such as fate of trace elements (mercury and other heavy metals) and distributions of SO2, NOx, and CO 2 by analysis of effluent streams; (5) Production of sufficient product to allow reliable commercial economic evaluation of both the refined coal product and the coproducts; and, (6) Assessment of longer-term reliability of unit operations. Period 1: reconfiguration of the 18 TPD plant to meet specific FOA requirements and to qualify the facility for operation; and, Period 2: operation of the 18 TPD plant for two campaigns using two coals types (ranks) which are widely commercially used and abundant - the first being a subbituminous (Powder River Basin (“PRB”)) coal, and the second a bituminous (Illinois #6) coal.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

Stability, Combustion, and Compatibility of High-Viscosity Heavy Fuel Oil Blends with a Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil

Properties related to the combustion, stability, and compatibility of blends composed of high-viscosity heavy fuel oil (HFO) and highly acidic pyrolysis bio-oil were determined to assess the utility of bio-oil as a marine fuel. The addition of bio-oil was shown to be fully stable with HFO at blend levels up to 50 mass % for up to 2 weeks. Bio-oil concentrations as low as 5 mass % significantly reduced the viscosity of HFO at 25 and 50 °C. Aging studies at 50 and 90 °C showed that the HFO inhibited the polymerization of bio-oil. The heating value and lubricity showed a linear dependency with bio-oil content, and combustion quality was acceptable for blends containing up to 15% bio-oil. The highly acidic bio-oil was found to be corrosive to carbon steel, 2.25Cr-1Mo steel, and 409 stainless steels, but not 304L and 316L. When blended into HFO at levels less than 19 mass %, no measurable corrosion was observed on any of the steel materials, but a 50 mass % concentration produced low-to-moderate corrosion in the carbon steel, 2.25Cr-1Mo steel, and 409 stainless steel grades. The combination of good blend stability, polymerization inhibition, reduced viscosity, and acceptable compatibility for low blend levels suggests that bio-oils may be suitable for use as a marine fuel.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Potential Availability of Alternative Fuel to Supply Maritime Activities in Pacific Northwest Ports

The international shipping sector represented 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2023 (Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy 2024). International shipping has been classified as a difficult-to-decarbonize industry (IRENA 2024). In an effort to drive decarbonization, the U.S. Department of Energy has partnered with Mission Innovation to co-lead the Zero-Emission Shipping Mission, which launched in 2021(Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy 2021). In addition, the U.S. Department of State partnered with Norway to launch the Green Shipping Challenge in 2022 (Office of the Spokesperson 2022b). As part of the ZESM and Green Shipping Challenge, the United States is collaborating with the Republic of Korea (ROK) to develop a green shipping corridor (U.S. Mission Korea 2023). The United States and ROK have conducted a pre-feasibility study as the first step in developing a green shipping corridor between the countries. The ports included in the study are Seattle, Tacoma, and Everette in the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW) and Busan, Ulsan, and Masan in ROK. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's role in the study was to analyze the availability and technical potential of alternative marine fuels in proximity to U.S. PNW ports. The findings show most of the existing alternative fuel capacity within the region is from renewable diesel, biodiesel, and sustainable aviation fuel facilities. The largest growth in fuel capacity in the region by 2030 is projected to be in renewable diesel and hydrogen. The overall technical readiness of non-drop-in alternative fuel production and conversion technologies is more developed than alternative-fueled ships and associated fueling infrastructure. However, much of the fuel capacity in the region is comprised of drop-in fuels, making it technically possible to use existing infrastructure for transporting and bunkering to the existing fleet. Data to inform regional alternative fuel quantity estimations were collected from an extensive review of databases, reports, announcements, and other publicly available resources. A maturity index and sector competition factor were applied to announced fuel projects to determine the quantity of alternative fuel available to the marine sector in the region by 2030. Demand data were collected from fuel bunkering logs covering the PNW seaports (State of Washington 2021). Both supply and demand data were converted to very-low sulfur fuel oil gallon equivalents (VLSFO-GE) for better comparison. Qualitative data were gathered through interviews with stakeholders, project developers, and industry experts. Total alternative fuel capacity available to the marine sector in the region is estimated to be 824 million VLSFO-GE per year by 2030. This is sufficient to cover the requirements of a green shipping corridor between the United States and ROK. The findings from this report are being used to inform detailed feasibility studies for several U.S. PNW -ROK green shipping corridors. Updates from the U.S. PNW - ROK feasibility studies will continue to be published on Mission Innovation's green corridor tracking website (Zero Emission Shipping Mission, n.d.). In addition, this report has helped to inform further work on shipping decarbonization in the U.S. PNW, including the Pacific Northwest to Alaska Green Corridor focused on cruise vessels.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

Biomass carbon removal can help sustainable aviation fuels achieve on-time arrival

Biofuels, including sustainable aviation and marine fuels, and biomass carbon removal and storage (BiCRS) are often viewed as potentially competing pathways for advancing climate and energy goals. Their comparative economic, environmental, and temporal advantages remain debated. Rather than identifying a “best-use” for biomass, we show that the relative economic advantages of BiCRS versus biofuels exist along a continuum shaped by energy- and decarbonization-focused market conditions. These pathways need not be adversarial: BiCRS can enable, rather than displace, future biofuel deployment. While the lignocellulosic biofuel sector continues to face barriers associated with underdeveloped supply chains and technologies that have not yet been commercialized at scale, emerging BiCRS approaches are comparatively feedstock-flexible, rapidly deployable, and responsive to carbon removal markets. Early BiCRS deployment can help establish reliable biomass supply chains, reducing investment risk for future lignocellulosic biorefineries. By easing initial supply chain constraints, BiCRS can serve as a practical stepping stone toward meeting both near-term carbon removal needs and long-term sustainable fuel objectives under uncertain future market and policy conditions.

bioenvironmental engineering↗

Tropical intertidal microbiome response to the 2024 Marine Honour oil spill

Marine fuel oil (MFO) spills in tropical coastal environments are under-characterized despite increasing risk from maritime activities. Microbial and geochemical responses to the June 2024 Marine Honour MFO spill on Singapore's intertidal sediments were analyzed in real time over 185 days. Using metagenomics and hydrocarbon profiling, microbial community shifts and hydrocarbon degradation were quantified across visibly oiled (high-impact) and clean (low-impact) sites. Microbiomes at all sites adapted rapidly to the spill through increased diversity and abundance of genes encoding alkane and aromatic compound degradation, detoxification, and biosurfactant production. The dominant hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria differed markedly from those reported in other crude oil spills and in regions with different climates. Oil deposition intensity strongly influenced microbial succession and hydrocarbon-degrading gene profiles, and this reflected early toxicity constraints in heavily oiled areas. The persistence of hydrocarbon degradation genes beyond hydrocarbon detection in sediments suggested long-term functional priming may occur. The study provides novel genome-resolved insight into the microbial response to MFO pollution, advances understanding of marine environmental biodegradation, and provides urgently needed baseline data for oil spill response strategies in Southeast Asia and beyond.

Coastal pollution↗

Simultaneous flow of zero-carbon and conventional fuel liquids through Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (Abstract)

The purpose of this CRADA is to address key technical challenges specific to the transport of ammonia, a promising carbon-free fuel and hydrogen-carrier, through crude oil pipelines. Specifically, the project seeks to develop novel technologies for preparing liquid ammonia/ hydrocarbon mixtures for the dual purpose of (i) pipeline transport, and (ii) developing advanced marine fuel blends. By demonstrating compatibility with the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System (TAPS) ammonia/oil blends may improve access to stranded natural gas and help overcome low-flow issues associated with declining oil productivity. In Alaska, this technology enhances the capabilities of TAPS allowing it to function as a statewide “Hydrogen Highway” for exporting green or blue ammonia. This is strategically important for Alaska which lacks statewide electrical transmission infrastructure but contains vast renewable and fossil resources located in remote regions with few local markets. Nationally, Alaska-sourced green (hydropower) or blue ammonia has the potential to improve reliability of a Pacific Northwest hydrogen storage hub as a hydrogen-carrier by helping to overcome seasonality of green hydrogen produced from solar or wind energy. Globally, this technology project has significant potential to improve the safety and efficacy of ammonia-rich fuel compositions for use in maritime propulsion and other mid-sized engines.

10 SYNTHETIC FUELS↗

Simultaneous flow of zero-carbon and conventional fuel liquids through Trans-Alaska Pipeline System [Abstract]

The purpose of this CRADA is to address key technical challenges specific to the transport of ammonia, a promising carbon-free fuel and hydrogen-carrier, through crude oil pipelines. Specifically, the project seeks to develop novel technologies for preparing liquid ammonia/ hydrocarbon mixtures for the dual purpose of (i) pipeline transport, and (ii) developing advanced marine fuel blends. By demonstrating compatibility with the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System (TAPS) ammonia/oil blends may improve access to stranded natural gas and help overcome low-flow issues associated with declining oil productivity. In Alaska, this technology enhances the capabilities of TAPS allowing it to function as a statewide “Hydrogen Highway” for exporting green or blue ammonia. This is strategically important for Alaska which lacks statewide electrical transmission infrastructure but contains vast renewable and fossil resources located in remote regions with few local markets. Nationally, Alaska-sourced green (hydropower) or blue ammonia has the potential to improve reliability of a Pacific Northwest hydrogen storage hub as a hydrogen-carrier by helping to overcome seasonality of green hydrogen produced from solar or wind energy. Globally, this technology project has significant potential to improve the safety and efficacy of ammonia-rich fuel compositions for use in maritime propulsion and other mid-sized engines.

08 HYDROGEN↗

Greenhouse gas emissions from the global transportation of crude oil: Current status and mitigation potential

Global crude-oil transportation contributes a significant portion of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the marine transportation sector. In this work, we first compile a detailed country-level global crude-oil transportation network in 2018 and estimate that the direct and well-to-hull GHG emissions related to crude transportation were 97 and 109 million metric tons, respectively. Combining with the country-specific crude recovery GHG intensities, the consumption-based well-to-country-gate crude-oil GHG intensities are derived for individual countries, ranging from 2.99 to 27.32 g CO 2 eq/MJ, with a global crude-volume-weighted average of 8.67 g CO 2 eq/MJ. We then project the global crude transportation emissions at the regional level in 2050 under a static (no change) scenario (based on current ship energy efficiency) and a sustainable-development (SD) scenario (based on the International Energy Agency's projections of ship energy efficiency and penetration of alternative marine fuels). Results show that the global well-to-hull GHG emissions related to crude transportation would be 82 and 59 million metric tons in 2050 in the static and SD scenarios, respectively. To further evaluate the impact of potential fuel-switching on decarbonizing the crude oil transportation sector, we estimate the GHG emissions for 20 fuel/production options in 2050. We find that, in comparison to the static scenario, ~50% reduction in global well-to-hull GHG emissions from crude transportation could be achieved under the SD scenario if green ammonia further replaces conventional ammonia. The methodology developed here can be applied to other commodities to estimate the emissions associated with their global marine transportation and to evaluate the potential emission mitigation options.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

State of Climate 2011 - Global Ocean Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton photosynthesis in the sun lit upper layer of the global ocean is the overwhelmingly dominant source of organic matter that fuels marine ecosystems. Phytoplankton contribute roughly half of the global (land and ocean) net primary production (NPP; gross photosynthesis minus plant respiration) and phytoplankton carbon fixation is the primary conduit through which atmospheric CO2 concentrations interact with the ocean s carbon cycle. Phytoplankton productivity depends on the availability of sunlight, macronutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorous), and micronutrients (e.g., iron), and thus is sensitive to climate-driven changes in the delivery of these resources to the euphotic zone

Siegel, D. A.↗

PACE: How One NASA Mission Aligns With the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (Ocean Shot #1)

The Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE; https://pace.gsfc.nasa.gov) mission, scheduled for launch in January 2024, will extend the continuous high-quality ocean color, atmospheric aerosol, and cloud data records begun by NASA in the late 1990s, building on the heritage of the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) (Figure 1). PACE’s global hyperspectral imaging radiometer design concept will enable new discoveries in Earth’s living ocean (Figure 2), such as the diversity of organisms fueling marine food webs and how aquatic ecosystems respond to environmental change. Its instrument payload (Figure 3) will also observe Earth’s atmosphere to study clouds, airborne aerosol particles, and the interactions between the two. Looking at the ocean, clouds, and aerosols together will improve our knowledge of the roles each plays in our evolving planet. Other applications of PACE science data records—from identifying the frequency, extent, and duration of aquatic harmful algal blooms to improving our understanding of air quality—will result in direct economic, recreational, and societal benefits. Ultimately, by extending and expanding NASA’s long record of global Earth satellite observations, the PACE mission will monitor our home planet in new and advanced ways in the coming decade.

Ocean color↗

NREL's Capabilities in Biorefinery Analysis

NREL remains at the forefront of expertise in conducting process, techno-economic, and life cycle analyses to connect research with future commercial process integration, a critical step in the scale-up of biomass conversion technologies. Technology areas covered include lignocellulosic biorefineries, algae, CO2 utilization, waste-to-energy, aviation and marine fuels, refinery modeling and analysis, and the circular economy.

BIOMASS FUELS,INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND AN↗

Adoption of Biofuels for Marine Shipping

Biomass-derived fuels can undoubtedly play an essential role in a future of marine fuel that is more renewable and offers potential synergistic benefits when blended with petroleum fuels. Biomass-derived marine fuel would reduce sulfur content, as well as improve overall emission profiles and ultimately environmental sustainability (including decarbonization) for marine transport. For example, biofuel derived from biomass such as forest residues is expected to deliver possibly up to 90% of life cycle (or well-to-propeller) greenhouse gas reduction versus fossil equivalents, and virtually eliminate SOx emissions - potentially without any requirement for engine modifications. For the benefits of biofuels to be realized and to be impactful, a significant fraction of marine fossil fuel will need to be displaced with biofuel. The direct replacement of marine fossil fuel with a biofuel necessitates that the production volume of biofuel will be high enough to meet the demand. Furthermore, the potential of biofuel adoption also depends on the future biofuel price. Hence, the long-term price and availability of marine biofuel are two critical factors for establishing the feasibility of marine biofuel adoption for operating vessels. This study will shed light on the prospect of biofuel to be adopted for the maritime shipping sector.

air emissions↗

Refinery Perspective on Decarbonizing with Marine Biofuels

This work seeks to understand what biofuel production pathways a refinery might prefer to produce very low sulfur fuel oil (VLSFO) for marine applications. A comprehensive refinery optimization model was modified to allow for (1) direct blending of soy biodiesel, renewable diesel, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, and several pyrolysis oils and (2) indirect blending of all pyrolysis oils via co-processing in a fluidized catalytic cracker (FCC) and diesel hydrotreater into the marine fuel pool. Results showed that preferred pathways to bio-VLSFO production included co-processing low-quality pyrolysis oil in a FCC to blend the resulting biogenic light cycle oil, directly blending soy biodiesel, and directly blending small quantities of pyrolysis oil. Bio-VLSFO production costs were compared to those of fossil VLSFO subject to different marine fuel demands, benchmark crude oil prices, and biogenic fractions in the finished product. Given benchmark crude oil prices over 60 $/bbl, bio-VLSFO production appeared to be significantly cheaper than fossil VLSFO. Corresponding marginal abatement costs of CO 2 mostly ranging from -300 to 350 $/ton of CO 2 were also determined using a simplified but novel approach to allow for a comparison to other decarbonization strategies. In conclusion, this work indicates that low-sulfur contents in biofuels, relatively relaxed specifications for marine fuels, and current difficulties in meeting VLSFO specifications with crude oils can combine to make bio-VLSFO production cost-effective. Moreover, marine fuels appear to be a good entry point for refiners to start decarbonizing with biofuel pathways that could eventually be extended to other product pools.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

Marin County Wildland Fires: Examining Fuel Load and Land Cover Change to Inform Fire Prevention and Suppression Decisions in Marin County, CA

Heightened occurrence of severe wildfires in the Western United States is increasing the need to better understand regions of high potential wildfire severity and develop methodologies for identifying the best locations for fuels reduction and active wildfire suppression, especially in populated regions such as Marin County, California. Marin County, located in the San Francisco Bay Area, has had significant development in the wildland-urban interface and periods of highly wildfire-prone conditions. The NASA DEVELOP team collaborated with Fire Foundry (a Marin-based fire service workforce development program) and the Marin County Fire Department to develop models to assist with fire management. Using data from Sentinel-2A, PlanetScope, ECOSTRESS, a county-wide LiDAR mapping effort, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), our team developed a number of input data layers for three different models to evaluate wildfire severity. One model performed a suitability analysis with weights based on scientific literature; another model utilized a U-Net Convolutional Neural Network trained on previous fires in Marin and neighboring Sonoma County to predict the difference normalized burn severity; and the third inputted data layers into the FlamMap tool that outputs risk categories. We compared model outputs and performed a weighted overlay analysis to identify specific locations where a fireline could be constructed to interrupt the progress of an active fire. These tools will assist partners in preparing for and managing active wildfire situations.

Remote sensing↗

Marin County Wildland Fires: Examining Fuel Load and Land Cover Change to Inform Fire Prevention and Suppression Decisions in Marin County, CA

Heightened occurrence of severe wildfires in the Western United States is increasing the need to better understand regions of high potential wild fire severity and develop methodologies for identifying the best locations for fuels reduction and active wildfire suppression, especially in populated regions such as Marin County, California. Marin County, located in the San Francisco Bay Area, has had significant development in the wildland-urban interface and periods of highly wildfire-prone conditions. The NASA DEVELOP team collaborated with Fire Foundry, a Marin-based fire service work force development program, to develop new models to assist with fire management. Using data from Sentinel-2A, Planet Scope, ECOSTRESS, a county-wide LiDAR mapping effort, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+), and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), the team developed several input data layers to three models evaluating wild fire severity. One model performed a suitability analysis with weights based on scientific literature, another utilized machine learning based on past fires in Marin and neighboring Sonoma County to predict the difference normalized burn ratio, and the third inputted data layers into the Flam Map tool, which outputs risk categories. The team compared model outputs and, using the best-fit model, performed fuzzy logic analysis to identify specific locations where a fire break could be constructed to interrupt the progress of an active fire. These tools were proven useful and will assist partners in preparing for and managing an active wildfire event.

Suhani Dalal↗

Microbial Communities in Model Seawater-Compensated Fuel Ballast Tanks: Biodegradation and Biocorrosion Stimulated by Marine Sediments

Some naval vessels add seawater to carbon steel fuel ballast tanks to maintain stability during fuel consumption. Marine sediments often contaminate ballast tank fluids and have been implicated in stimulating fuel biodegradation and enhancing biocorrosion. The impact of the marine sediment was evaluated in model ballast tank reactors containing seawater, fuel (petroleum-F76, Fischer–Tropsch F76, or a 1:1 mixture), and carbon steel coupons. Control reactors did not receive fuel. The marine sediment was added to the reactors after 400 days and incubated for another year. Sediment addition produced higher estimated bacterial numbers and enhanced sulfate reduction. Ferrous sulfides were detected on all coupons, but pitting corrosion was only identified on coupons exposed to FT-F76. Aerobic hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria increased, and the level of dissolved iron decreased, consistent with the stimulation of aerobic hydrocarbon degradation by iron. We propose that sediments provide an inoculum of hydrocarbon-degrading microbes that are stimulated by dissolved iron released during steel corrosion. Hydrocarbon degradation provides intermediates for use by sulfate-reducing bacteria and reduces the level of fuel components inhibitory to anaerobic bacteria. The synergistic effect of dissolved iron produced by corrosion, biodegradable fuels, and iron-stimulated hydrocarbon-degrading microbes is a poorly recognized but potentially significant biocorrosion mechanism.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗