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NASA NTRS1989

Science opportunities in the human exploration of moon

Human exploration of the moon will open up science opportunities not only in lunar science, but also in astronomy and astrophysics, life science, solar and space physics, earth science, and even evolutionary biology. These opportunities may be categorized as those involving study of the moon itself, those in which the moon is used as a platform for investigations, and those conducted in transit between earth and the moon. This paper describes some of these opportunities, and calls on the science community to continue and expand its efforts to define the opportunities, and to work toward their inclusion in plans to return humans permanently to the moon.

Pilcher, Carl B.↗
NASA NTRS1999

The Role of Lunar Development in Human Exploration of the Solar System

Human exploration of the solar system can be said to have begun with the Apollo landings on the Moon. The Apollo Project was publicly funded with the narrow technical objective of landing human beings on the Moon. The transportation and life support systems were specialized technical designs, developed in a project management environment tailored to that objective. Most scenarios for future human exploration assume a similar long-term commitment of public funds to a narrowly focused project managed by a large, monolithic organization. Advocates of human exploration of space have not yet been successful in generating the political momentum required to initiate such a project to go to the Moon or to Mars. Alternative scenarios of exploration may relax some or all of the parameters of organizational complexity, great expense, narrow technical focus, required public funding, and control by a single organization. Development of the Moon using private investment is quite possibly a necessary condition for alternative scenarios to succeed.

Mendell, Wendell W.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Impacts of In-Space Assembly as Applied to Human Exploration Architectures

Human missions to Mars present several major challenges that must be overcome, including delivering multiple large mass and volume elements, keeping the crew safe and productive, meeting cost constraints, and ensuring a sustainable campaign. Traditional methods for executing human Mars missions minimize or eliminate in-space assembly (iSA), which provides a narrow range of options for addressing these challenges and limits the types of missions that can be performed. This paper discusses recent work to evaluate how the inclusion of in-space assembly in space mission architectural concepts could provide novel solutions to address these challenges by increasing operational flexibility, robustness, risk reduction, crew health and safety, and sustainability. Several assembly focus areas identified through previous work were developed and evaluated to identify high-potential iSA applications that can have meaningful impacts on the challenges facing Mars missions. Architecture trade options were developed and assessed through sensitivity analyses, resulting in identification of six iSA-based architecture solutions that could be incorporated into Mars mission architectures with moderate levels of assembly. Assembly agent and infrastructure concepts were also developed that would be necessary to enable or facilitate the iSA operations. Several observations developed through the study are presented to inform future human mission architecture and campaign developments.

Jefferies, Sharon A.↗
NASA NTRS2004

Teleoperation from Mars Orbit: A proposal for Human Exploration

For a human expedition to Mars, a case can be made that the best strategy for initial exploration is not to actually land the humans on Mars, but to put the humans into Mars orbit and operate on the surface by the technology of teleoperation. This will provide the results of human exploration, but at greatly reduced risk and cost. Teleoperation of Mars surface robots from a Mars-orbital habitat will operation near real time operation with minimum time delay, giving a virtual presence on the surface. By use of teleoperation, it is possible to vastly simplify the surface exploration mission. We now have no need to develop a human-rated Mars Lander and Mars Ascent Vehicle, and we can send geologists & biologists on the mission; not VTOL pilots. It is a cheaper, simpler, and safer way to explore, and hence it will be a faster way to explore. It has the excitement of being there, at a fraction of the price. Tele-exploration from Mars orbit also allows human (virtual) presence at a wide variety of locations. With an orbital base controlling surface telerobotics, human explorers are not stuck with one base location, but can explore all over Mars. They can explore the polar caps and also near-equatorial canyon regions, from the same orbiting base. This frees the mission from landing site constraints. With no need to select a "grab bag" site that contains a large number of geologically diverse features at or near a single location; it is now possible go to all the best sites-- paleolake sites, river beds, volcanic calderas, lava tube sites, layered terrain, canyons, possible shoreline features, the North and South poles. A near-polar inclination 24-hr 39-minute period Mars orbit, for example, will put the orbital station in line-of-sight of a given region for about 8 hours per day-- one teleoperation shift. Since present day life could exist on Mars, planetary protection is also needed to preserve the (possible) fragile Mars biosphere from competition from ferocious Earth life. Isolated biospheres on Earth have been devastated when they have been exposed to alien life forms introduced-accidentally or deliberately-- from another continent. If there is life on Mars, we will wish to protect it from having to compete with introduced Earth biota. Reverse planetary protection-protecting the Earth biosphere from exposure to Mars microorganisms-is also an important consideration. Exploring from orbit will reduce biological risk by keeping humans from exposure to possible Mars microbes. A telerobotic mission will need no quarantine on return to Earth, and avoids the difficult human question of how to isolate Mars mission astronauts infected by Martian microorganisms.

Landis, Geoffrey A.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Low-Latency Telerobotics from Mars Orbit: The Case for Synergy Between Science and Human Exploration

Initial, science-directed human exploration of Mars will benefit from capabilities in which human explorers remain in orbit to control telerobotic systems on the surface (Figure 1). Low-latency, high-bandwidth telerobotics (LLT) from Mars orbit offers opportunities for what the terrestrial robotics community considers to be high-quality telepresence. Such telepresence would provide high quality sensory perception and situation awareness, and even capabilities for dexterous manipulation as required for adaptive, informed selection of scientific samples [1]. Astronauts on orbit in close communication proximity to a surface exploration site (in order to minimize communication latency) represent a capability that would extend human cognition to Mars (and potentially for other bodies such as asteroids, Venus, the Moon, etc.) without the challenges, expense, and risk of putting those humans on hazardous surfaces or within deep gravity wells. Such a strategy may be consistent with goals for a human space flight program that, are currently being developed within NASA.

Valinia, A.↗
NASA NTRS2006

Trade Space Assessment for Human Exploration Mission Design

Many human space exploration mission architecture assessments have been performed over the years by diverse organizations and individuals. Direct comparison of metrics among these studies is extremely difficult due to widely varying assumptions involving projected technology readiness, mission goals, acceptable risk criteria, and socio-political environments. However, constant over the years have been the physical laws of celestial dynamics and rocket propulsion systems. A finite diverse yet finite architecture trade space should exist which captures methods of human exploration - particularly of the Moon and Mars - by delineating technical trades and cataloging the physically realizable options of each. A particular architectural approach should then have a traceable path through this "trade tree". It should be pointed out that not every permutation of paths will result in a physically realizable mission approach, but cataloging options that have been examined by past studies should help guide future analysis. This effort was undertaken in two phases by multi-center NASA working groups in the spring and summer of 2004 using more than thirty years of past studies to "flesh out" the Moon-Mars human exploration trade space. The results are presented, not as a "trade tree", which would be unwieldy, but as a "menu" of potential technical options as a function of mission phases. This is envisioned as a tool to aid future mission designers by offering guidance to relevant past analyses.

Joosten, B. Kent↗
NASA NTRS2010

Astrobiology and the Human Exploration of Mars

In March 2007, the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) chartered the Human Exploration of Mars Science Analysis Group (HEM-SAG), co-chaired by J. B. Garvin and J. S. Levine and consisting of about 30 Mars scientists from the U.S. and Europe. HEM-SAG was one of a half dozen teams charted by NASA to consider the human exploration of Mars. Other teams included: Mars Entry, Descent and Landing, Human Health and Performance, Flight and Surface Systems, and Heliospheric/Astrophysics. The results of these Mars teams and the development of an architecture for the human exploration of Mars were summarized in two recent publications: Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0, NASA Special Publication-2009-566 (B. G. Drake, Editor), 100 pages, July 2009 and Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture 5.0, NASA Special Publication-2009-566 Addendum (B. G. Drake, Editor), 406 pages, July 2009. This presentation summarizes the HEM-SAG conclusions on astrobiology and the search for life on Mars by humans.

Levine, Joel S.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Lunar Polar In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) as a Stepping Stone for Human Exploration

A major emphasis of NASA is to extend and expand human exploration across the solar system. While specific destinations are still being discussed as to what comes first, it is imperative that NASA create new technologies and approaches that make space exploration affordable and sustainable. Critical to achieving affordable and sustainable exploration beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) are the development of technologies and approaches for advanced robotics, power, propulsion, habitats, life support, and especially, space resource utilization systems. Space resources and how to use them, often called In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), can have a tremendous beneficial impact on robotic and human exploration of the Moon, Mars, Phobos, and Near Earth Objects (NEOs), while at the same time helping to solve terrestrial challenges and enabling commercial space activities. The search for lunar resources, demonstration of extraterrestrial mining, and the utilization of resource-derived products, especially from polar volatiles, can be a stepping stone for subsequent human exploration missions to other destinations of interest due to the proximity of the Moon, complimentary environments and resources, and the demonstration of critical technologies, processes, and operations. ISRU and the Moon: There are four main areas of development interest with respect to finding, obtaining, extracting, and using space resources: Prospecting for resources, Production of mission critical consumables like propellants and life support gases, Civil engineering and construction, and Energy production, storage, and transfer. The search for potential resources and the production of mission critical consumables are the primary focus of current NASA technology and system development activities since they provide the greatest initial reduction in mission mass, cost, and risk. Because of the proximity of the Moon, understanding lunar resources and developing, demonstrating, and implementing lunar ISRU provides a near and early opportunity to perform the following that are applicable to other human exploration mission destinations: Identify and characterize resources, how they are distributed, and the material, location and environment in which they are found; Demonstrate concepts, technologies, and hardware that can reduce the cost and risk of human exploration beyond Earth orbit; Use the Moon for operation experience and mission validation for much longer missions that are farther from Earth Develop and evolve ISRU to support sustained, economical human presence beyond Earth's orbit, including promoting space commercialization As Table 1 depicts, the Moon provides environments and resources applicable to Mars and NEOs. Two lunar ISRU resource and product pathways that have notable synergism with NEO, Phobos/Demos, and Mars ISRU are oxygen/metal extraction from regolith, and water/volatile extraction from lunar polar materials. To minimize the risk of developing and incorporating ISRU into human missions, a phased implementation plan is recommended that starts with prospecting and demonstrating critical technologies on robotic and human missions, then performing pilot scale operations (in non-mission critical roles) to enhance exploration mission capabilities, leading to full utilization of space resources in mission critical roles. Which lunar ISRU pathway is followed will depend on the results of early resource prospecting/proof-ofconcept mission(s), and long-term human exploration plans.

Sanders, Gerald B.↗
NASA NTRS2016

NASA's Flexible Path for the Human Exploration

The idea of human exploration of Mars has been a topic in science fiction for close to a century. For the past 50 years it has been a major thrust in NASAs space mission planning. Currently, NASA is pursuing a flexible development path with the final goal to have humans on Mars. To reach Mars, new hardware will have to be developed and many technology hurdles will have to be overcome. This presentation discusses Mars and its Moons; the flexible path currently being followed; the hardware under development to support exploration; and the technical and organizational challenges that must be overcome to realize the age old dream of humans traveling to Mars.

Power Technology↗
NASA NTRS2023

Science Objectives for Human Exploration of Mars Workshop Report

The Science Objectives for Human Exploration of Mars Workshop was held in Denver, Colorado on May 4–6, 2022. The workshop was co-sponsored by NASA’s Science Mission Directorate and the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate to actively engage the planetary science community to determine what planetary science should be done by human crews on the martian surface and how those science objectives can be achieved. Sessions at the Science Objectives for Human Exploration of Mars Workshop were organized around specific planetary science objectives and mission architecture concepts that were identified during the workshop as the highest priority for human exploration. The intent of this workshop was to synthesize a notional, integrated concept of operations for each scenario to aid in planning and refining the mission architecture for the first human mission to Mars. Results from the Planetary Decadal Survey Report were released xx days before the workshop and were briefed to workshop participants who incorporated the findings in the discussions. With the Artemis missions, humans will return to the Moon using innovative technologies to explore the lunar surface. We will apply what we learn about exploration architecture, surface infrastructure, and science and exploration operations on and around the Moon to conduct successful missions with the first astronauts to Mars. A human mission to Mars will be a landmark achievement and a golden opportunity to make groundbreaking scientific discoveries on Mars. The potential scope of the science activities and impact of achieving those objectives are extraordinary.

Mars↗
NASA NTRS1993

Exploration planning in the context of human exploration and development of the Moon

It is widely believed that the next step beyond low Earth orbit in attaining the United States' stated goal of 'Expanding human presence beyond the Earth' should be to reestablish a lunar capability, building on the Apollo program, and preparing the way for eventual human missions to Mars. The Moon offers important questions in planetary and Earth science, can provide a unique platform for making astronomical observations of high resolution and sensitivity, and can be in the development path for unlocking resources of the inner solar system to support space activities and return benefits to Earth. NASA's Office of Exploration has undertaken the planning of future lunar exploration missions with the assistance of the Solar System Exploration Division in matters dealing with the quality of scientific data and the manner in which it will be made available to the scientific community. The initial elements of the proposed program include the Lunar Scout missions, which consist of two small identical spacecraft in polar orbit around the Moon, which can accomplish most of the objectives associated with previous proposals for Lunar Polar Orbiters. These missions would be followed by 'Artemis' landers, capable of emplacing up to 200 kg payloads anywhere on the Moon. In addition, the exploration program must incorporate data obtained from other missions, including the Galileo lunar flybys, the Clementine high orbital observations, and Japanese penetrator missions. In the past year, a rather detailed plan for a 'First Lunar Outpost (FLO)' which would place 4 astronauts on the lunar surface for 45 days has been developed as a possible initial step of a renewed human exploration program. In the coming year, the FLO concept will be reviewed and evolved to become more highly integrated with planning for the initial human exploration of Mars, which could come perhaps 5 years after the reestablishment of lunar capability. Both programs could benefit from the common development of systems and subsystems, where that is sensible from a performance perspective.

Duke, Michael B.↗
NASA NTRS2018

Emerging Technologies for Human Mars Exploration

Human Mars explorers will have different needs than robotic explorers. Human Mars exploration can leverage many emerging technologies, and there are opportunities to test these technologies on the International Space Station or in Cislunar space.

Exploration↗
NASA NTRS2020

Resources from Water-Rock Interactions for Future Human Exploration of Mars

One of the most exciting endeavors in modern space exploration is extended human exploration of the Moon and Mars. We have entered a new phase in the human venture where we seek to expand our "...presence deeper into space and to the Moon for sustainable long-term exploration and utilization". With this endeavor come new challenges. Among them is the requirement for In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) methods to supplement or replace materials transported from Earth. The energy required to leave Earth's gravity well is immense, as is well illustrated by the nearly 3000 metric ton Saturn V required to deliver a payload of less than 50 metric tons to the Moon during the Apollo era. Much of this mass is propellant. Launch vehicles from Earth into space are generally 85 to 95% propellant (oxidizer + fuel) by mass. Potential ascent vehicles from Mars would also need to be approximately 80% propellant by mass to return to Earth. ISRU of fuel reactants could exchange delivered fuel mass directly for payload mass on the order of several metric tons. Devices like MOXIE are being designed to address the oxidizer component. However, 40% of the propellant mass in an ascent vehicle is the fuel reactant, and ISRU of this component has not been addressed for Mars or the Moon. Toward addressing this need, we have begun to develop and optimize methods to generate and recover fuel components, including H2, from Lunar and Martian relevant materials as potential in situ resources for future extended human missions. Hydrogen is an ideal resource to target. Not only can H2 be used directly as part of a propellant, it can also be used as a component in other fuels, such as methane. It is useful agriculturally for fixing nitrogen and can be oxidized to produce heat and water.

Adcock, C. T.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Design Considerations for Spacecraft Operations During Uncrewed Dormant Phases of Human Exploration Missions

NASA is transforming human spaceflight. The Agency is shifting from an exploration-based program with human activities in low Earth orbit (LEO) and targeted robotic missions in deep space to a more sustainable and integrated pioneering approach. However, pioneering space involves daunting technical challenges of transportation, maintaining health, and enabling crew productivity for long durations in remote, hostile, and alien environments. Subject matter experts from NASA's Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD) are currently studying a human exploration campaign that involves deployment of assets for planetary exploration. This study, called the Evolvable Mars Campaign (EMC) study, explores options with solar electric propulsion as a central component of the transportation architecture. This particular in-space transportation option often results in long duration transit to destinations. The EMC study is also investigating deployed human rated systems like landers, habitats, rovers, power systems and ISRU system to the surface of Mars, which also will involve long dormant periods when these systems are staged on the surface. In order to enable the EMC architecture, campaign and element design leads along with system and capability development experts from HEOMD's System Maturation Team (SMT) have identified additional capabilities, systems and operation modes that will sustain these systems especially during these dormant phases of the mission. Dormancy is defined by the absence of crew and relative inactivity of the systems. For EMC missions, dormant periods could range from several months to several years. Two aspects of uncrewed dormant operations are considered herein: (1) the vehicle systems that are placed in a dormant state and (2) the autonomous vehicle systems and robotic capabilities that monitor, maintain, and repair the vehicle and systems. This paper describes the mission stages of dormancy operations, phases of dormant operations, and critical system capabilities that are needed for dormant operations. This paper will compare dormancy operations of past robotic missions to identify lessons that can be applied to planned human exploration missions. Finally, this paper will also identify future work and analysis planned to assess system performance metrics and integrated system operations.

Williams-Byrd, Julie↗
NASA NTRS2013

Human Exploration of Near-Earth Asteroids and Sample Collection Considerations

In 2009 the Augustine Commission identified near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) as high profile destinations for human exploration missions beyond the Earth-Moon system as part of the Flexible Path. Subsequently, the U.S. presidential administration directed NASA on April 15, 2010 to include NEAs as destinations for future human exploration with the goal of sending astronauts to a NEA in the mid to late 2020s. This directive became part of the official National Space Policy of the United States of America as of June 28, 2010. Human Exploration Considerations: These missions would be the first human expeditions to interplanetary bodies beyond the Earth-Moon system and would prove useful for testing technologies required for human missions to Mars, Phobos and Deimos, and other Solar System destinations. Missions to NEAs would undoubtedly provide a great deal of technical and engineering data on spacecraft operations for future human space exploration while conducting in-depth scientific examinations of these primitive objects. However, prior to sending human explorers to NEAs, robotic investigations of these bodies would be required in order to maximize operational efficiency and reduce mission risk. These precursor missions to NEAs would fill crucial strategic knowledge gaps concerning their physical characteristics that are relevant for human exploration of these relatively unknown destinations. Sample Science Benefits: Information obtained from a human investigation of a NEA, together with ground-based observations and prior spacecraft investigations of asteroids and comets, will also provide a real measure of ground truth to data obtained from terrestrial meteorite collections. Major advances in the areas of geochemistry, impact history, thermal history, isotope analyses, mineralogy, space weathering, formation ages, thermal inertias, volatile content, source regions, solar system formation, etc. can be expected from human NEA missions. Samples directly returned from a primitive body would lead to the same kind of breakthroughs for understanding NEAs that the Apollo samples provided for understanding the Earth-Moon system and its formation history. International Participation: In addition, robotic precursor and human exploration missions to NEAs would allow the NASA and its international partners to gain operational experience in performing complex tasks (e.g., sample collection, deployment of payloads, retrieval of payloads, etc.) with crew, robots, and spacecraft under microgravity conditions at or near the surface of a small body. This would provide an important synergy between the worldwide Science and Exploration communities, which will be crucial for development of future international deep space exploration architectures and has potential benefits for future exploration of other destinations beyond low-Earth orbit.

Abell, Paul↗
NASA NTRS2004

The Human Exploration Initative: Space Radiation Measurement Needs

NASA's Space Exploration Initiative envisions human exploration missions to the Moon and Mars. To accomplish these missions safely, they must be designed and planned to limit the acute and long term health risks posed by ionizing radiation. This requires knowledge of the relevant components of the ionizing radiation environment in deep space, on the Moon and on Mars. In this talk we will identify what must be known about the ionizing radiation environment, discuss what knowledge already exists and suggest what new measurements may be needed before manned missions can be conducted safely.

Adams, Jim↗
NASA NTRS1998

Reference Mission Version 3.0 Addendum to the Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team

This Addendum to the Mars Reference Mission was developed as a companion document to NASA Special Publication 6107, “Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Exploration Study Team.” The Addendum summarizes changes and updates to the Mars Reference Mission the Exploration Office developed since the final draft of SP 6107 was printed in early 1998. The Reference Mission is a tool used by the Exploration Team and the exploration community to compare and evaluate approaches to mission and system concepts that could be used for human exploration missions. It is intended to identify and clarify system “drivers,” or significant sources of cost, performance, risk, and schedule variation. It does not represent a final or recommended approach to human Mars missions. Several alternative scenarios, including human exploration missions to the Moon, asteroids, or other targets beyond Earth orbit as well as employing different technical approaches to solving mission and technology challenges, are currently under study by the Exploration Team. Comparing alternative approaches provides the basis for continual improvement to technology investment plans and general understanding of future human exploration missions. The Addendum represents a “snapshot” of work in progress in support of planning for future human exploration missions through May 1998. Annual publications of revisions to the Reference Mission are planned beginning in late 1998.

Mars↗