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NASA NTRS2012

Development and Applications of a Stage Stacking Procedure

The preliminary design of multistage axial compressors in gas turbine engines is typically accomplished with mean-line methods. These methods, which rely on empirical correlations, estimate compressor performance well near the design point, but may become less reliable off-design. For land-based applications of gas turbine engines, off-design performance estimates are becoming increasingly important, as turbine plant operators desire peaking or load-following capabilities and hot-day operability. The current work develops a one-dimensional stage stacking procedure, including a newly defined blockage term, which is used to estimate the off-design performance and operability range of a 13-stage axial compressor used in a power generating gas turbine engine. The new blockage term is defined to give mathematical closure on static pressure, and values of blockage are shown to collapse to curves as a function of stage inlet flow coefficient and corrected shaft speed. In addition to these blockage curves, the stage stacking procedure utilizes stage characteristics of ideal work coefficient and adiabatic efficiency. These curves are constructed using flow information extracted from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of groups of stages within the compressor. Performance estimates resulting from the stage stacking procedure are shown to match the results of CFD simulations of the entire compressor to within 1.6% in overall total pressure ratio and within 0.3 points in overall adiabatic efficiency. Utility of the stage stacking procedure is demonstrated by estimation of the minimum corrected speed which allows stable operation of the compressor. Further utility of the stage stacking procedure is demonstrated with a bleed sensitivity study, which estimates a bleed schedule to expand the compressors operating range.

Kulkarni, Sameer↗

NASA NTRS2004

New Hydrophilic, Composite Membranes for Air Removal from Water Coolant Systems

Liquid coolants are commonly used as thermal transport media to increase efficiency and flexibility in aerospace vehicle design. The introduction of gas bubbles into the coolant can have negative consequences, including: loss of centrifugal pump prime, irregular sensor readings, and blockage of coolant flow to remote systems. One solution to mitigate these problems is the development of a passive gas removal device, or gas trap, installed in the flight cooling system. In this study, a new hydrophilic, composite membrane has been developed for passage of the coolant fluid and retention of gas bubbles. The trapped bubbles are subsequently vented from the system by a thin, hydrophobic, microporous membrane. The original design for this work employed a homogeneous membrane that was susceptible to fouling and pore plugging. Spare gas traps of this variety have degraded during storage, and recreation of the membranes has been complicated due to problems with polymer duplication and property variations in the final membranes. In this work, replacements have been developed based on deposition of a hydrophilic polymer on the bore-side of a porous polyethylene (PE) tube. The tube provides excellent chemical and mechanical stability, and the hydrophilic layer provides retention of gas bubbles. Preliminary results have shown that intimate contact is required between the deposited layer and the substrate to overcome material differences. This has been accomplished by presoaking the membrane tube in the solvent to raise its surface energy. Polymer solutions of various concentrations have been used to promote penetration of the polymer layer into the porous substrate and to control separation layer thickness. The resulting composite membranes have shown repeatable decrease in nitrogen permeability, which is indicative of a decrease in membrane pore size. Studies with water permeation have yielded similar results. We have observed some swelling of the added polymer layer, which causes a slight decrease in membrane pore size, and should result in improved bubble retention. Preliminary studies have also been performed on gas retention in flowing systems. Initial results have been promising, with negligible gas permeation for the coated membranes compared to 100% gas permeation in the uncoated tube.

Ritchie, Stephen M. C.↗

NASA NTRS2003

Membrane-Based Gas Traps for Ammonia, Freon-21, and Water Systems to Simplify Ground Processing

Gas traps are critical for the smooth operation of coolant loops because gas bubbles can cause loss of centrifugal pump prime, interference with sensor readings, inhibition of heat transfer, and blockage of passages to remote systems. Coolant loops are ubiquitous in space flight hardware, and thus there is a great need for this technology. Conventional gas traps will not function in micro-gravity due to the absence of buoyancy forces. Therefore, clever designs that make use of adhesion and momentum are required for adequate separation, preferable in a single pass. The gas traps currently used in water coolant loops on the International Space Station are composed of membrane tube sets in a shell. Each tube set is composed of a hydrophilic membrane (used for water transport and capture of bubbles) and a hydrophobic membrane (used for venting of air bubbles). For the hydrophilic membrane, there are two critical pressures, the pressure drop and the bubble pressure. The pressure drop is the decrease in system pressure across the gas trap. The bubble pressure is the pressure required for air bubbles to pass across the water filled membrane. A significant difference between these pressures is needed to ensure complete capture of air bubbles in a single pass. Bubbles trapped by the device adsorb on the hydrophobic membrane in the interior of the hydrophilic membrane tube. After adsorption, the air is vented due to a pressure drop of approximately 1 atmosphere across the membrane. For water systems, the air is vented to the ambient (cabin). Because water vapor can also transport across the hydrophobic membrane, it is critical that a minimum surface area is used to avoid excessive water loss (would like to have a closed loop for the coolant). The currently used gas traps only provide a difference in pressure drop and bubble pressure of 3-4 psid. This makes the gas traps susceptible to failure at high bubble loading and if gas venting is impaired. One mechanism for the latter is when particles adhere to the hydrophobic membrane, promoting formation of a water layer about it that can blind the membrane for gas transport (Figure 1). This mechanism is the most probable cause for observed failures with the existing design. The objective of this project was to devise a strategy for choosing new membrane materials (database development and procedure), redesign of the gas trap to mitigate blinding effects, and to develop a design that can be used in ammonia and Freon-21 coolant loops.

Ritchie, Stephen M. C.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Nonlinear Oscillations and Flow of Gas Within Closed and Open Conical Resonators

A dissonant acoustic resonator with a conical shaped cavity was tested in four configurations: (A) baseline resonator with closed ends and no blockage; (B) closed resonator with internal blockage; (C) ventilated resonator with no blockage; and (D) ventilated resonator with an applied pressure differential. These tests were conducted to investigate the effects of blockage and ventilation holes on dynamic pressurization. Additionally, the investigation was to determine the ability of acoustic pressurization to impede flow through the resonator. In each of the configurations studied, the entire resonator was oscillated at the gas resonant frequency while dynamic pressure, static pressure, and temperature of the fluid were measured. In the final configuration, flow through the resonator was recorded for three oscillation conditions. Ambient condition air was used as the working fluid. The baseline results showed a marked reduction in the amplitude of the dynamic pressure waveforms over previously published studies due to the use of air instead of refrigerant as the working fluid. A change in the resonant frequency was recorded when blockages of differing geometries were used in the closed resonator, while acoustic pressure amplitudes were reduced from baseline measurements. A sharp reduction in the amplitude of the acoustic pressure waves was expected and recorded when ventilation ports were added. With elevated pressure applied to one end of the resonator, flow was reduced by oscillating the cavity at the fluid fundamental resonant frequency compared to cases without oscillation and oscillation off-resonance.

Daniels, Christopher↗

NASA NTRS1983

Fuel Vaporization Effects

A study of the effects of fuel-air preparation characteristics on combustor performance and emissions at temperature and pressure ranges representative of actual gas turbine combustors is discussed. The effect of flameholding devices on the vaporization process and NOx formation is discussed. Flameholder blockage and geometry are some of the elements that affect the recirculation zone characteristics and subsequently alter combustion stability, emissions and performance. A water cooled combustor is used as the test rig. Preheated air and Jet A fuel are mixed at the entrance of the apparatus. A vaporization probe is used to determine percentage of vaporization and a gas sample probe to determine concentration of emissions in the exhaust gases. The experimental design is presented and experimental expected results are discussed.

Bosque, M. A.↗

NASA NTRS2006

Periodically Discharging, Gas-Coalescing Filter

A proposed device would remove bubbles of gas from a stream of liquid (typically water), accumulate the gas, and periodically release the gas, in bulk, back into the stream. The device is intended for use in a flow system (1) in which there is a requirement to supply bubble-free water to a downstream subsystem and (2) that includes a sensor and valves, just upstream of the subsystem, for sensing bubbles and diverting the flow from the subsystem until the water stream is again free of bubbles. By coalescing the gas bubbles and then periodically releasing the accumulated gas, the proposed device would not contribute to net removal of gas from the liquid stream; nevertheless, it would afford an advantage by reducing the frequency with which the diverter valves would have to be activated. The device (see figure) would include an upper and a lower porous membrane made of a hydrophilic material. Both membranes would cover openings in a tube leading to an outlet. These membranes would allow water, but not gas bubbles, to pass through to the interior of the tube. Inside the tube, between the two membranes, there would be a flow restrictor that would play a role described below. Below both membranes there would be a relief valve. Water, possibly containing bubbles, would enter from the top and would pass through either the lower membrane or both membranes, depending how much gas had been accumulated thus far. When the volume of accumulated gas was sufficient to push the top surface of the liquid below the lower porous membrane, water could no longer flow through either membrane toward the outlet. This blockage would cause an increase in back pressure that would cause the relief valve to open. The opening of the relief valve would allow both the water and the bulk-accumulated gas to pass through to the outlet. Once the gas had been pushed out, water would once again flow through both membranes at a much lower pressure drop. The flow restrictor would maintain enough pressure drop to keep the relief valve open until gas had been cleared from both hydrophilic membranes.

Carter, Donald Layne↗

NASA NTRS1974

Entry aerodynamics and heating

An overview of the problems of entry aerodynamics and heating is given with emphasis on survival of the probe, predictability of performance, and reliability of performance. Technological challenges to performance prediction are considered and include: turbulent heat transfer, radiation blockage, chemical state of the shock layer, afterbody heat transfer, asymmetric ablation, and real-gas aerodynamics. It is indicated that various obstacles must be overcome in order to achieve technology readiness. These obstacles are considered to be: extrapolations from ground tests to flight; lack of flight experience; lack of parametric data; and uncertain knowledge of atmospherics.

Olstad, W.↗

NASA NTRS1981

Investigation of a method for repairing the hot gas system branch 2 of the Symphonie-Satellite MV2 in orbit

The failure of all engines on the Symphonie MV2 satellite is attributed to blockage of the oxidizer branch caused by metal salts precipitating and forming a gel which constricts the narrow passage. Laboratory tests and other simulations conducted to observe the behavior of artificially produced jellies on a vacuum show that a removal or at least a reduction of the blockage in the oxidizer branch is possible by evacuation. The greatest blockage appears to occur in the filter. This fact restricts the capability to perform repairs in orbit because the filter installed ahead of the valve cannot by subjected to a vacuum.

Braun, H.↗

NASA NTRS2003

An Improved Design for Air Removal from Aerospace Fluid Loop Coolant Systems

Aerospace applications with requirements for large capacity heat removal (launch vehicles, platforms, payloads, etc.) typically utilize a liquid coolant fluid as a transport media to increase efficiency and flexibility in the vehicle design. An issue with these systems however, is susceptibility to the presence of noncondensable gas (NCG) or air. The presence of air in a coolant loop can have numerous negative consequences, including loss of centrifugal pump prime, interference with sensor readings, inhibition of heat transfer, and coolant blockage to remote systems. Hardware ground processing to remove this air is also cumbersome and time consuming which continuously drives recurring costs. Current systems for maintaining the system free of air are tailored and have demonstrated only moderate success. An obvious solution to these problems is the development and advancement of a passive gas removal device, or gas trap, that would be installed in the flight cooling system simplifying the initial coolant fill procedure and also maintaining the system during operations. The proposed device would utilize commercially available membranes thus increasing reliability and reducing cost while also addressing both current and anticipated applications. In addition, it maintains current pressure drop, water loss, and size restrictions while increasing tolerance for pressure increases due to gas build-up in the trap.

Ritchie, Stephen M. C.↗

NASA NTRS1984

A two-dimensional analysis of laser heat addition in converging nozzles

The two-dimensional equations of motion describing the interaction between a laser beam and a flowing gas are considered. An implicit numerical scheme is used to solve these equations for unchoked flow through a converging-diverging nozzle. Separate grids are used for the fluid dynamics and the radiation equations. The effects of beam focusing and cross-beam intensity profiles are included. The calculations are based upon real gas properties for all quantities except the gas absorptivity, which is taken as a constant. The solutions contain the expected hot central core region with cool gas near the walls. This results in steep temperature gradients in both the streamwise and cross-stream directions. The absorption zone acts as a blockage in the nozzle causing a nonuniform velocity profile at the inlet and an overall decrease in mass flow. The absorption region also forces the streamlines to move away from the axis of symmetry, although this effect is not strong.

Molvik, G. A.↗

NASA NTRS1975

Cardiorespiratory responses to orthostasis and the effects of propranolol

Cardiac output and gas exchange were determined serially using the single-breath method of Kim et al. before, during, and after orthostasis on six subjects after beta-adrenergic blockage and in duplicate controls. In the latter, heart rate increased and pulse pressure dropped immediately on tilting to 60 deg and remained stable while cardiac output and stroke volume declined gradually over 21 min upright. On propranolol, heart rate was 10 bpm lower supine and 20 bpm less at 60 deg but cardiac output was only slightly lower before and following tilt-up. However, after 15 min upright, stroke volume and cardiac output recovered on propranolol exceeding the controls after 21 min without change in heart rate. Returning to supine, heart rate dropped in all tests with a transitory increase in stroke volume, cardiac output and arteriovenous O2 difference. At the same time, apparent O2 uptake increased temporarily, reflecting the return of pooled venous blood to the lungs. Orthostatic tolerance did not appear to be affected by beta-adrenergic blockade.

Loeppky, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1981

Optical absorption of carbon and hydrocarbon species from shock heated acetylene and methane in the 135-220 nm wavelength range

Absorption spectroscopy of carbon and hydrocarbon species has been performed in a shock tube at an incident shock condition for a wavelength range of 135-220 nm, in order to obtain information needed for calculating radiation blockage ahead of a planetary probe. Instrumentation consisted of high frequency response pressure transducers, thin-film heat transfer gages, or photomultipliers coupled by light pipes. Two test-gas mixtures, one with acetylene and the other with methane, both diluted with argon, were used to provide a reliable variation of C3 and C2H concentration ratio. Comparison of tests results of the two mixtures, in the temperature range of 3750 + or - 100 K, showed the main absorbing species to be C3. The wavelength for maximum absorption agrees well with the theoretical values of 7.68 eV and 8.03 eV for the vertical excitation energy, and a value of 0.90 for the electronic oscillator strength, obtained from the measured absorption band, is also in good agreement with the predicted value of 0.92.

Shinn, J. L.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Macroscopic balance model for wave rotors

A mathematical model for multi-port wave rotors is described. The wave processes that effect energy exchange within the rotor passage are modeled using one-dimensional gas dynamics. Macroscopic mass and energy balances relate volume-averaged thermodynamic properties in the rotor passage control volume to the mass, momentum, and energy fluxes at the ports. Loss models account for entropy production in boundary layers and in separating flows caused by blade-blockage, incidence, and gradual opening and closing of rotor passages. The mathematical model provides a basis for predicting design-point wave rotor performance, port timing, and machine size. Model predictions are evaluated through comparisons with CFD calculations and three-port wave rotor experimental data. A four-port wave rotor design example is provided to demonstrate model applicability. The modeling approach is amenable to wave rotor optimization studies and rapid assessment of the trade-offs associated with integrating wave rotors into gas turbine engine systems.

Welch, Gerard E.↗

NASA NTRS2000

A Contaminant Ice Visualization Experiment in a Glass Pulse Tube

Results are presented from pulse tube experiments designed to investigate the effect of 400 parts per million water vapor contamination of the helium working gas. The experiments were conducted in a glass pulse tube to enable visualization of ice formation on internal surfaces. Photographs of this ice formation were taken along with simultaneous coldtip temperature and compressor power measurements. Four types of regenerator elements were tested in various combinations: 200- and 400-mesh stainless steel screens, 1.6 mm diameter glass beads, and 1.6 mm thick perforated plastic plates. Internal spacers were also used to provide clear fields of view into the regenerator stack. Substantial water-ice formation was observed at the cold end of the regenerator and on the inside wall of pulse tube; it appeared to be highly porous, like snow, and was seen to accumulate only in a very localized region at the coldest end, despite changing the cold tip temperature across a range of 150 to 235 K. Ice formation degraded pulse tube thermal performance only in cases where screen regenerators were used at the regenerator cold end. It was concluded that flow blockage was the mechanism by which contaminants affected performance; coarse regenerator elements were largely immune over the tested time scale of a few days. Substantially reduced ice formation and minimal performance loss were also observed in repeated tests where the contaminated gas was reused after warming up and melting of the accumulated internal ice. Significant adsorption of the liquid water onto the regenerator was inferred, a process that depleted the gas phase concentration of water.

Hall, J. L.↗

NASA NTRS1977

A study of the aerothermal environment for the Pioneer Venus multiprobe mission

In December 1978, four Pioneer Venus probe spacecraft are scheduled for almost simultaneous entry into the Venusian atmosphere at widely dispersed points about the planet. In this study, both detailed and approximate flow field analyses are used to define the entry aerothermal environment for the forebody of each of the four probes. The results show that approximate analyses can be used to predict inviscid radiative and laminar convective heating rates with acceptable accuracy. However, the radiative heating rates obtained with inviscid analyses are significantly greater than those obtained with a nonablating viscous-shock-layer (VSL) analysis, because the VSL analysis includes a strongly absorbing boundary layer. Also, the results show that the radiative heating is sensitive to small variations in atmospheric gas composition while the convective heating is not affected. With carbon-phenolic injection, the convective heating is reduced substantially while the overall radiative heating reduction is very small. Most of the radiative blockage occurs in the atomic line transitions which is significant only in the stagnation region.

Moss, J. N.↗

NASA NTRS2003

Investigations of High Pressure Acoustic Waves in Resonators with Seal-like Features

A conical resonator (having a dissonant acoustic design) was tested in four configurations: (1) baseline resonator with closed ends and no blockage, (2) closed resonator with internal blockage, (3) ventilated resonator with no blockage, and (4) ventilated resonator with an applied pressure differential. These tests were conducted to investigate the effects of blockage and ventilation holes on dynamic pressurization. Additionally, the investigation was to determine the ability of acoustic pressurization to impede flow through the resonator. In each of the configurations studied, the entire resonator was oscillated at the gas resonant frequency while dynamic pressure, static pressure, and temperature of the fluid were measured. In the final configuration, flow through the resonator was recorded for three oscillation conditions. Ambient condition air was used as the working fluid.

Daniels, Christopher↗

NASA NTRS1991

Visualization of the freeze/thaw characteristics of a copper/water heat pipe - Effects of non-condensible gas

The freeze/thaw characteristics of a copper/water heat pipe of rectangular cross section were investigated experimentally to determine the effect of variations in the amount of non-condensible gases (NCG) present. The transient internal temperature profiles in both the liquid and vapor channels are presented along with contours of the frozen fluid configuration obtained through visual observation. Several interesting phenomena were observed including total blockage of the vapor channel by a solid plug, evaporator dryout during restart, and freezing blowby. In addition, the restart characteristics are shown to be strongly dependent upon the shutdown procedure used prior to freezing, indicating that accurate prediction of the startup or restart characteristics requires a complete thermal history. Finally, the experimental results indicate that the freeze/thaw characteristics of room temperature heat pipes may be significantly different from those occurring in higher temperature, liquid metal heat pipes due to differences in the vapor pressures in the frozen condition.

Ochterbeck, J. M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

CFD modeling of turbulent flows around the SSME main injector assembly using porosity formulation

Hot gas turbulent flow distribution around the main injector assembly of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) and LOX flow distribution through the LOX posts have a great effect on the combustion phenomena inside the main combustion chamber. In order to design a CFD model to be an effective engineering analysis tool with good computational turn-around time (especially for 3-D flow problems) and still maintain good accuracy in describing the flow features, the concept of porosity was employed to describe the effects of blockage and drag force due to the presence of the LOX posts in the turbulent flow field around the main injector assembly of the SSME. Two-dimensional numerical studies were conducted to identify the drag coefficients of the flows, both through tube banks and round the shielded posts, over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. Empirical, analytical expressions of the drag coefficients as a function of local flow Reynolds number were then deduced. The porosity model was applied to the turbulent flow around the main injector assembly of the SSME, and analyses were performed. The 3-D CFD analysis was divided into three parts: LOX dome, hot gas injector assembly, and hydrogen cavity. The numerical results indicate that the mixture ratio at the downstream of injector face was close to stoichiometric around baffle elements.

Cheng, Gary C.↗