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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1985

Thermocapillary and Diffusocapillary Migration of a Fluid Drop

The migration of bubbles, or drops, plays an important role in many engineering science and space manufacturing problems. In material science processes as in the manufacturing of glasses, etc., gas bubbles can be formed from the by-products of chemical reactions or gas trapped in the interstices of the raw material. In the low-g environment of space, forces other than gravitational must be utilized as a bubble separation technique. It is well-known that gradients in interfacial tension on the bubbles' surface can promote droplet motion in the direction of decreasing interfacial tension and hence provide such a separation mechanism. Thus, the role of thermocapillary and diffusocapillary migration of a bubble, or drop, can be of paramount interest in materials processing in space.

Sani, R. L.↗
NASA NTRS1996

Capillary movement of liquid in granular beds in microgravity

A more complete understanding of the dynamics of capillary flow through an unsaturated porous medium would be useful for the development of an effective water and nutrient delivery system for the growth of plants in space. An experiment was conducted on the Mir Space Station that used an experimental cuvette called "Capillary Test Bed" to compare fluid migration under terrestrial laboratory conditions by positioning the cuvette such that the hydrostatic force is negated and on Mir under microgravity conditions. Differences in fluid migration in the cuvette were observed with migration being slower in microgravity compared with some ground control experiments.

Mir Project↗
DOE OSTI2018

Percolation in Salt Rocks - 18652

We present laboratory investigations of fluid percolation in salt rocks, performed on drilled core samples, which show that natural rock salt does not become permeable at high pressures and temperatures, as had been claimed in the literature. Rather, we confirm the existence of a percolation threshold: Fluid migration is only possible when the fluid pressure equals or exceeds the lowest confining stress. The lab tests corroborate in-situ-determinations of the percolation threshold in salt formations: The threshold is given by the minimal stress in the rock mass (minimal stress criterion), and fluid pressure-driven percolation starts once it is exceeded. The hypothesis that the percolation threshold vanishes at high pressure and temperature is thus refuted by experiments on natural rock salt. These experimental tests, performed in the framework of the KOSINA project, are an important prerequisite for the proof of integrity of saliferous barriers in the disposal of radioactive waste in salt rocks. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS1994

Capillary Movement of Liquid in Granular Beds in Microgravity

A more complete understanding of the dynamics of capillary flow through an g unsaturated porous medium would be useful for a number of space and terrestrial applications. One such application involves the development of an effective water and nutrient delivery system for the growth of plants in space. An experiment was conducted on the Mir Space Station that used an experimental cuvette called "Capillary Test Bed". An objective of this experiment was to compare fluid migration in the "Capillary Test Bed" under terrestrial laboratory simulated microgravity conditions by positioning the cuvette such that the hydrostatic force is negated and on Mir at microgravity conditions. Difference in fluid migration in the cuvette were observed. Based on these observations, improvements in the design of the cuvette are under-way that should allow for collection of more precise data in future flight experiments. The results of the MIR experiment and modifications being made to the cuvette for improved data collection will be discussed.

Yendeler, Boris S.↗
DOE OSTI2014

Utilizing rare earth elements as tracers in high TDS reservoir brines in CCS applications

In this paper we report the result of research associated with the testing of a procedures necessary for utilizing natural occurring trace elements, specifically the Rare Earth Elements (REE) as geochemical tracers in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) applications. Trace elements, particularly REE may be well suited to serve as in situ tracers for monitoring geochemical conditions and the migration of CO₂-charged waters within CCS storage systems. We have been conducting studies to determine the efficacy of using REE as a tracer and characterization tool in the laboratory, at a CCS analogue site in Soda Springs, Idaho, and at a proposed CCS reservoir at the Rock Springs Uplift, Wyoming. Results from field and laboratory studies have been encouraging and show that REE may be an effective tracer in CCS systems and overlying aquifers. In recent years, a series of studies using REE as a natural groundwater tracer have been conducted successfully at various locations around the globe. Additionally, REE and other trace elements have been successfully used as in situ tracers to describe the evolution of deep sedimentary Basins. Our goal has been to establish naturally occurring REE as a useful monitoring measuring and verification (MMV) tool in CCS research because formation brine chemistry will be particularly sensitive to changes in local equilibrium caused by the addition of large volumes of CO₂. Because brine within CCS target formations will have been in chemical equilibrium with the host rocks for millions of years, the addition of large volumes of CO₂ will cause reactions in the formation that will drive changes to the brine chemistry due to the pH change caused by the formation of carbonic acid. This CO₂ driven change in formation fluid chemistry will have a major impact on water rock reaction equilibrium in the formation, which will impart a change in the REE fingerprint of the brine that can measured and be used to monitor in situ reservoir conditions. Our research has shown that the REE signature imparted to the formation fluid by the introduction of CO₂ to the formation, can be measured and tracked as part of an MMV program. Additionally, this REE fingerprint may serve as an ideal tracer for fluid migration, both within the CCS target formation, and should formation fluids migrate into overlying aquifers. However application of REE and other trace elements to CCS system is complicated by the high salt content of the brines contained within the target formations. In the United States by regulation, in order for a geologic reservoir to be considered suitable for carbon storage, it must contain formation brine with total dissolved solids (TDS) > 10,000 ppm, and in most cases formation brines have TDS well in excess of that threshold. The high salinity of these brines creates analytical problems for elemental analysis, including element interference with trace metals in Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) (i.e. element mass overlap due to oxide or plasma phenomenon). Additionally, instruments like the ICP-MS that are sensitive enough to measure trace elements down to the parts per trillion level are quickly oversaturated when water TDS exceeds much more than 1,000 ppm. Normally this problem is dealt with through dilution of the sample, bringing the water chemistry into the instruments working range. However, dilution is not an option when analyzing these formation brines for trace metals, because trace elements, specifically the REE, which occur in aqueous solutions at the parts per trillion levels. Any dilution of the sample would make REE detection impossible. Therefore, the ability to use trace metals as in situ natural tracers in high TDS brines environments requires the development of methods for pre-concentrating trace elements, while reducing the salinity and associated elemental interference such that the brines can be routinely analyzed by standard ICP-MS methods. As part of the Big Sky Carbon Sequestration Project the INL-CAES has developed a rapid, easy to use process that pre-concentrates trace metals, including REE, up to 100x while eliminating interfering ions (e.g. Ba, Cl). The process is straightforward, inexpensive, and requires little infrastructure, using only a single chromatography column with inexpensive, reusable, commercially available resins and wash chemicals. The procedure has been tested with synthetic brines (215,000 ppm or less TDS) and field water samples (up to 5,000 ppm TDS). Testing has produced data of high quality with REE capture efficiency exceeding 95%, while reducing interfering elements by > 99%.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

pyperc v. 0.1

pyperc is a Python package for invasion percolation which models multiphase fluid migration in porous media. The model accounts for capillary pressure, buoyancy, and gravity. Regular and unstructured grids can be used. A tuning parameter can be set to adjust the stochastic nature of the process. Graphics depict fluid migration according to the invasion pressure.

Klise, Katherine↗
DOE OSTI2017

A novel muon detector for borehole density tomography

Muons can be used to image the density of materials through which they pass, including geological structures. Subsurface applications of the technology include tracking fluid migration during injection or production, with increasing concern regarding such timely issues as induced seismicity or chemical leakage into aquifers. Current density monitoring options include gravimetric data collection and active or passive seismic surveys. One alternative, or complement, to these methods is the development of a muon detector that is sufficiently compact and robust for deployment in a borehole. Such a muon detector can enable imaging of density structure to monitor small changes in density – a proxy for fluid migration – at depths up to 1500 m. Such a detector has been developed, and Monte Carlo modeling methods applied to simulate the anticipated detector response. Testing and measurements using a prototype detector in the laboratory and shallow underground laboratory demonstrated robust response. Lastly, a satisfactory comparison with a large drift tube-based muon detector is also presented.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2016

87 Sr/ 86 Sr Concentrations in the Appalachian Basin: A Review

This document reviews 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope data across the Appalachian Basin from existing literature to show spatial and temporal variation. Isotope geochemistry presents a means of understanding the geochemical effects hydraulic fracturing may have on shallow ground substrates. Isotope fractionation is a naturally occurring phenomenon brought about by physical, chemical, and biological processes that partition isotopes between substances; therefore, stable isotope geochemistry allows geoscientists to understand several processes that shape the natural world. Strontium isotopes can be used as a tool to answer an array of geological and environmental inquiries. In some cases, strontium isotopes are sensitive to the introduction of a non-native fluid into a system. This ability allows strontium isotopes to serve as tracers in certain systems. Recently, it has been demonstrated that strontium isotopes can serve as a monitoring tool for groundwater and surface water systems that may be affected by hydraulic fracturing fluids (Chapman et al., 2013; Kolesar Kohl et al., 2014). These studies demonstrated that 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values have the potential to monitor subsurface fluid migration in regions where extraction of Marcellus Shale gas is occurring. This document reviews publicly available strontium isotope data from 39 sample locations in the Appalachian Basin (Hamel et al., 2010; Chapman et al., 2012; Osborn et al., 2012; Chapman et al., 2013; Capo et al., 2014; Kolesar Kohl et al., 2014). The data is divided into two sets: stratigraphic (Upper Devonian/Lower Mississippi, Middle Devonian, and Silurian) and groundwater. ArcMap™ (ESRI, Inc.) was used to complete inverse distance weighting (IDW) analyses for each dataset to create interpolated surfaces in an attempt to find regional trends or variations in strontium isotopic values across the Appalachian Basin. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr varies up to ~ 0.011 across the Appalachian Basin, but the current publicly available data is limited in frequency and regional extent, causing artifacts and high uncertainty when interpolating data for locations far from sampling sites. These factors highlight the need for additional strontium isotope sampling across the region. Identifying potential contamination from hydraulic fracturing fluid in Appalachian Basin groundwater using strontium isotopes would require additional sampling. For a more comprehensive strontium isotope database, samples would need to be collected during prefracturing, syn-fracturing, and post-fracturing stages. This would add a temporal component to the spatial data and make tracing of fluid migration with strontium isotopes more accurate. Future research and modeling that incorporates subsurface geology and watershed data would also serve to increase the accuracy and certainty of the interpolations of these analyses. Prospective geospatial Appalachian Basin isotope studies would also benefit from the integration of geologic mapping because surface and subsurface geology influences observed strontium isotope values.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Determination of permeability for hydrocarbon release due to excavation-induced stress redistribution in rock salt

Due to a stress redistribution after the excavation of an underground tunnel for radioactive waste disposal, an Ed/DZ (excavation disturbed/damaged zone) will be generated in the near field of the opening, resulting in significant changes in the hydraulic and mechanical properties of the rock mass in the zone. Initially more or less randomly distributed hydrocarbons at grain boundaries in rock salt, which sometimes can only be observed with ultraviolet light, can then be mobilised and migrate at a potentially significant rate towards the excavation. Within the international cooperative project DECOVALEX 2019, the migration mechanism of such fluid inclusions in rock salt is being studied intensively. Specifically, a multi-scale modelling strategy has been developed. A macroscale coupled hydro-mechanical modelling of an underground excavation was performed to determine hydraulic and time-dependent deviatoric stress conditions, by taking into account the rock salt creep behaviour. Under the obtained macro-scale constraints, micro-scale modelling of a pathway dilation along halite grain boundaries was performed using different model strategies: a) coupled hydromechanical modelling with a consideration of hydraulic pressure-induced dilatant deformation, b) nonlinear dynamic model taking account of fluid migration, stress-dependent grain boundary wetting and shear-induced dilatancy of salt, and c) phase-field modelling of flow pathway propagation. The permeability increase resulting from the pathway dilation is estimated to be as high as two orders of magnitude. Based on the permeability determined, a series of pressure buildups measured from a borehole with a high hydrocarbon release rate, a total of 430 build-ups within a monitoring time of 938 days, can be simulated with a macro-scale compressible flow model accounting for different zones around the opening.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Permeability Evolution and Frictional Stability of Fabricated Fractures With Specified Roughness

Roughness is widely observed on natural fractures, and its impact on the potential for induced seismicity and associated fluid migration in the subsurface remains unclear. Here we perform fracture shearing and fluid flow experiments on artificially fabricated fractures with specified roughness to investigate the role of fracture roughness on frictional properties and permeability evolution. Given the experimental conditions, we observe that rough fractures show high roughness ratio S q /L w and return higher frictional strength due to the presence of cohesive interlocking asperities. Rough fracture surfaces show velocity strengthening behavior in the initial shearing stage, which may evolve to velocity neutral and velocity weakening at greater displacements—suggesting a dynamic weakening that rough fractures become less stable with shearing. The surface roughness exerts a dominant control on permeability evolution over the entire shearing history. Permeability declines monotonically by about 2 orders of magnitude for smooth fractures. For high roughness fractures, the permeabilities evolve episodically due to cycled compaction and dilation during shearing. With a slip distance of 6 to 8 mm, permeability of the rough surface may enhance up to an order of magnitude, but significant permeability reduction may also occur for rough samples when asperities are highly worn with gouge clogging flow paths. However, there is no obvious correlation between permeability evolution and frictional behavior for rough fracture samples when fractures are subject to sudden sliding velocity changes.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2021

Episodic Earthquake Swarms in the Mineral Mountains, Utah Driven by the Roosevelt Hydrothermal System

Over 1,000 earthquakes (-2.0 < M < 2.0), identified using a matched-filter method, occurred in the Mineral Mountains, Utah between 2016 and 2019. The enhanced catalog is complete down to M -0.9 and contains roughly 15 times more events than originally cataloged. Earthquake relocation of ~800 earthquakes shows that activity is concentrated in a <2 km long E-W striking narrow zone, ~4 km east of the Roosevelt hydrothermal system. Two fault orientations, both N-S and E-W parallel to the Opal Mound and Mag Lee faults, respectively, are observed after computing composite focal mechanisms of highly similar earthquakes. Looking solely at the temporal distribution of the seismicity, we identify 15 periods of swarm-like activity, with two major clusters occurring in December 2016, recorded by three stations, and in October 2019 recorded by eight stations. The October 2019 swarm, the best recorded sequence in the area, provides evidence for the underlying triggering mechanism. We show that a complex mechanism of fluid diffusion and aseismic slip is responsible for the swarm evolution with migration velocities reaching 10 km/day. We hypothesize that these episodic swarms in the Mineral Mountains are primarily driven by migrating fluids that originate within the Roosevelt hydrothermal system.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Numerical investigation of multiphase flow through self-affine rough fractures

Multiphase flow through fractures has great significance in subsurface energy recovery and gas storage applications. Different fracture and flow properties affect flow through a fracture which is difficult to control in laboratory experiments. Here, we perform lattice Boltzmann simulations in an ensemble of synthetically generated fractures. Drainage simulations are performed at different capillary numbers, wettability, and viscosity ratios. We track the invading front and quantify breakthrough saturations and show that roughness and wettability have a strong effect on fluid invasion through a complex fracture. Invading a more viscous fluid results in more stable displacement regardless of the capillary number while at very low capillary numbers, fluid migration is dependent on the inherent structure of the fracture. We develop a fluid displacement phase diagram in a single rough fracture and compare our results from that in the literature. Finally, we extend the phase diagrams across multiple fractures and demonstrate the importance of natural fracture features of roughness and wettability in identifying stable versus unstable displacement regimes during multiphase flow through rough fractures. Our work presents an end-to-end numerical pathway for testing on experimental data and expanding numerical data sets for testing combinations of different physical phenomenon and make valuable predictions on fluid flow through rough fractures.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2022

Simulation study of chemo-mechanical impacts of CO 2 injection in morrow b sandstone reservoir

Here, this study investigates the impacts of geomechanical and geochemical changes on carbon storage in a partially depleted oil reservoir, using results from four different coupled simulation models. Models were used to examine the relative importance of storage mechanisms, and how changing reservoir parameters might affect these mechanisms through time. The study uses data from a Morrowan sandstone reservoir in the Farnsworth Unit (FWU), Ochiltree County, Texas which is currently undergoing CO 2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Partially depleted oil reservoirs such as the FWU offer attractive carbon utilization and/or storage targets because of existing infrastructure and economic benefits from incremental oil recovery as well as tax credits. However, prediction of storage capacity or long-term fluid migration in these fields can be difficult because of the wide variation in formation fluids and operational histories that may have undergone. CO 2 injection can cause complex geomechanical and geochemical responses in a reservoir as a result of interplay between dynamic changes in pore pressure, reservoir temperature, fluid composition, and interactions between formation fluids, CO 2 , and reservoir rock. Thus, multiple coupled numerical simulation models must be developed and used to more precisely understand what CO 2 storage mechanisms are most significant, as well as the long-term fate of the stored CO 2 . Our study used results from hydrodynamic, coupled hydro-geomechanical, coupled hydro-geochemical, and coupled hydro-geomechanical-geochemical models to examine how changes in geomechanical and geochemical properties can impact the injectivity or storage capacity of CO 2 . Models simulated historical field operations and then forward-modeled a water-alternate-gas (WAG) operation for 20 years, followed by a 1000-year post-injection monitoring. The work demonstrates that in this specific reservoir, geomechanical impacts appear to be more significant than any geochemical processes, which showed minimal impact on reservoir properties. Furthermore, these simulation scenarios corroborated other studies showing more than 90% of CO 2 injected are being stored and will remain stored in the reservoir. The study was able to draw on a rich set of data from this currently operational project for the work. Because the Morrow is a widespread oil-bearing reservoir in the midcontinent of the United States and is fairly typical of many sandstone reservoirs elsewhere, the study has significance beyond the boundaries of our field area.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2019

Aqueous Alteration on Mars

The occurrence of extensive valley networks and layered deposits of phyllosilicates and sulfates during the late Noachian/Hesperian periods (approx. 3-4 Gyrs) indicates a past martian climate that was capable of maintaining liquid water at the surface. The planet’s climate drastically changed after these early “episodes” of water to a drier and colder environment during the Amazonian period (past 3.0 Gyrs). The objective of this paper is to describe aqueous alteration/weathering scenarios on Mars based on observations returned by rover and lander missions. The chemistry of most outcrops, rocks, and “soils” that have interacted with water has not been extensively changed from average Mars crustal basaltic composition. Little chemical variation suggests closed hydrologic systems were prominent on early Mars and/or the water/rock ratios were low. Open hydrologic systems occur at local scales, e.g., high Si and Ti rocks and “soil” deposits around a volcanic feature in Gusev crater. Geochemical and mineralogical indicators for aqueous alteration include jarosite and other Fe-sulfates at several locations suggesting acid-sulfate alteration conditions. High Si and Ti rocks, sediments, and “soil” deposits are consistent with basaltic residues extenively leached by extremely acidic fluids. Variations in the Fe/Mn ratio of fracture veins infilled with sulfate-rich materials suggest changes in redox and/or pH conditions of the migrating fluids. The increase of nanophase iron oxides and salts with depth in several “soil” pits escavated by the Spirit rover’s wheel in Gusev crater suggests the translocation/mobolization of these phases by liquid water. This “pedogenic” process is the result of limited water movement through the surface sediments during the Amazonian period; however, it is likely that paleosols exist on Mars that formed during the early “wetter” history of the planet. Soil scientists have the opportunity to continue to (and should) be involved in the exploration of the Red planet.

Ming, Douglas W.↗
DOE OSTI2017

Diffraction imaging for seal evaluation using ultra high resolution 3D seismic data

Cap rock is any impermeable or low permeability formation that may trap oil, gas or water, preventing it from migrating to the surface. Evaluation of sealing properties of the cap rock is a critical task for seismic exploration. It is important for oil and gas prospecting as well as for locating reservoirs appropriate for carbon dioxide storage. The latter has been proposed as one solution to global climate change caused by heat-trapping anthropogenic gasses in the atmosphere. A fluid escaped from the reservoir fills voids in the overlying strata thereby causing local changes of acoustic properties. We aim to explore such fluid-saturated areas and thus evaluate sealing properties of underlying cap rocks. We assume that local acoustic impedance changes caused by fluid migration generate seismic diffractions. We isolate diffracted waves from P-Cable seismic data acquired over the area of interest and perform diffraction analysis of the near-surface interval (above 200 m). In the diffraction image obtained, we interpret an extensive system of broad sinuous channels, narrow linear faults, and diffuse fracture networks. In addition, we detect high diffractivity anomalies, which extend vertically and laterally. We note no evidence of these anomalies in a conventional seismic image and associated seismic attribute (similarity and fracture density) volumes. We associate this high diffractivity to a variable pore fluid composition and saturation, which we infer to be due to hydrocarbon migration from the underlying strata. Consequently, we conclude poor seal quality for the underlying cap rocks. During data processing, we test diffraction focusing analysis for velocity model building. In conclusion, this option appears quite valuable for P-Cable data processing because of short offset and limitations of the standard velocity analysis.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗