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NASA NTRS2019

Subsurface Cl-bearing salts as potential contributors to recurring slope lineae (RSL) on Mars

We report laboratory experimental results that support a brine-related hypothesis for the recurring slope lineae (RSL) on Mars in which the subsurface Cl-salts, i.e., hydrous chlorides and oxychlorine salts (HyCOS) are the potential source materials. Our experiments revealed that within the observed RSL temperature window TRSL (250–300 K), the deliquescence of HyCOS could occur in relative humidity ranges (RH≥22%–46%) much lower than those for hydrous (Mg, Fe)-sulfates (RH≥75%–96%). In addition, we demonstrated that the RH values kept by common HyCOS and hydrous sulfates in enclosures have a general trend as RH(sulfates) > RH(perchlorates) > RH(chlorides) (with same type of cation) in wide T range. It means that the required RH range for a Cl-bearing salt to deliquescence can be satisfied by a co-existing salt of different type, e.g., in the subsurface layers of mixed salts on Mars. Furthermore, we found a strong temperature dependence of the deliquescence rates for all tested HyCOS, e.g., a duration of 1–5 sols for all HyCOS at the high end (300 K) of TRSL, and of 20–70 sols for all tested HyCOS (except NaClO4·H2O) at the low end (250 K) of TRSL, which is consistent with the observed seasonal behavior of RSL on Mars. From a mass-balance point of view, the currently observed evidences on Mars do not support a fully-brine-wetted track model, thus we suggest a brine-triggered granular-flow model for the most RSL. Considering the recurrence of RSL in consecutive martian years, our experimental results support the rehydration of remnant HyCOS layers during a martian cold season through H2O vapor-to-salt direct interaction. We found that the evidences of HyCOS rehydration under Mars relevant P-T-RH conditions are detectable in a few minutes by in situ Raman spectroscopy. This rehydration would facilitate the recharge of H2O back into subsurface HyCOS, which could serve as the source material to trigger RSL in a subsequent warm season. The major limiting factor for this rehydration is the H2O supply, i.e., the H2O vapor density carried by current Mars atmospheric circulation and the diffusion rate of H2O vapor into the salt-rich subsurface in a cold season. In a worst-case scenario, these H2O supplies can support a maximum increase of hydration degrees of two for totally dehydrated HyCOS, whereas the full rehydration of subsurface HyCOS layers can be easily reached during a>30° obliquity period that has H2O vapor density 10× to 20× times the value of current obliquity. Overall, our results imply the existence of a large amount of Cl-bearing salts in the subsurface at RSL sites.

Alian Wang↗

NASA NTRS2016

Deposition, Accumulation, and Alteration of Cl(-), NO3(-), ClO4(-) and ClO3(-) Salts in a Hyper-Arid Polar Environment: Mass Balance and Isotopic Constraints

The salt fraction in permafrost soils/sediments of the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica can be used as a proxy for cold desert geochemical processes and paleoclimate reconstruction. Previous analyses of the salt fraction in MDV permafrost soils have largely been conducted in coastal regions where permafrost soils are variably affected by aqueous processes and mixed inputs from marine and stratospheric sources. We expand upon this work by evaluating permafrost soil/sediments in University Valley, located in the ultraxerous zone where both liquid water transport and marine influences are minimal. We determined the abundances of Cl(-), NO3(-, ClO4(-)and ClO3(-)in dry and ice-cemented soil/sediments, snow and glacier ice, and also characterized Cl(-) and NO3(-) isotopically. The data are not consistent with salt deposition in a sublimation till, nor with nuclear weapon testing fall-out, and instead point to a dominantly stratospheric source and to varying degrees of post depositional transformation depending on the substrate, from minimal alteration in bare soils to significant alteration (photodegradation and/or volatilization) in snow and glacier ice. Ionic abundances in the dry permafrost layer indicate limited vertical transport under the current climate conditions, likely due to percolation of snowmelt. Subtle changes in ClO4(-)/NO3(-) ratios and NO3(-) isotopic composition with depth and location may reflect both transport related fractionation and depositional history. Low molar ratios of ClO3(-)/ClO4(-) in surface soils compared to deposition and other arid systems suggest significant post depositional loss of ClO3(-), possibly due to reduction by iron minerals, which may have important implications for oxy-chlorine species on Mars. Salt accumulation varies with distance along the valley and apparent accumulation times based on multiple methods range from approximately 10 to 30 kyr near the glacier to 70-200 kyr near the valley mouth. The relatively young age of the salts and relatively low and homogeneous anion concentrations in the ice-cemented sediments point to either a mechanism of recent salt removal, or to relatively modern permafrost soils (less than 1 million years). Together, our results show that near surface salts in University Valley serve as an end-member of stratospheric sources not subject to biological processes or extensive remobilization.

cold desert geochemical processes↗

NASA NTRS1994

Fluid-loading solutions and plasma volume: Astro-ade and salt tablets with water

Fluid loading with salt and water is a countermeasure used after space flight to restore body fluids. However, gastrointestinal side effects have been frequently reported in persons taking similar quantities of salt and water in ground-based studies. The effectiveness of the Shuttle fluid-loading countermeasure (8 gms salt, 0.97 liters of water) was compared to Astro-ade (an isotonic electrolyte solution), to maintain plasma volume (PV) during 4.5 hrs of resting fluid restriction. Three groups of healthy men (n=6) were studied: a Control Group (no drinking), an Astro-ade Group, and a Salt Tablet Group. Changes in PV after drinking were calculated from hematocrit and hemoglobin values. Both the Salt Tablet and Astro-ade Groups maintained PV at 2-3 hours after ingestion compared to the Control Group, which had a 6 percent decline. Side effects (thirst, stomach cramping, and diarrhea) were noted in at least one subject in both the Astro-ade and Salt Tablet Groups. Nausea and vomiting were reported in one subject in the Salt Tablet Group. It was concluded that Astro-ade may be offered as an alternate fluid-loading countermeasure but further work is needed to develop a solution that is more palatable and has fewer side effects.

Fortney, Suzanne M.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Topography of the Flattest Surface on Earth: using ICESAT, GPS, and MISR to Measure Salt Surface Topography on Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia

Salt flats are aptly named: they are composed largely of salt, and are maintained as nearly equipotential surfaces via frequent flooding. The salar de Uyuni, on the Altiplano in southwestern Bolivia, is the largest salt flat on Earth, with an area of 9,800 sq km. Except for a few bedrock islands, it has less than 40 cm of relief. The upper-most salt unit averages 5 m thick and contains 50 cu km of nearly pure halite. It includes most of the salt that was in solution in paleolake Minchin, which attained a maximum area of 60,000 sq km and a maximum depth of 150 m, roughly 15 kyr ago. Despite approx. 10 m of differential isostatic rebound since deposition, the salar surface has been actively maintained as an extraordinarily flat and smooth surface by annual flooding during the rainy season. We have used the strong optical absorption properties of water in the visible band to map spatial variations in water depth during a time when the salar was flooded. As water depth increases, the initially pure white surface appears both darker and bluer. We utilized MISR images taken during the interval from April to November 2001. The red and infra-red bands (672 and 867 nm wavelength) were most useful since the water depth is small and the absorption at those wavelengths is quite strong. Nadir pointed MISR images have 275 m spatial resolution. To aid in our evaluation of water depth variations over the saiar surface, we utilized two sources of direct topographic measurements: several ICESAT altimetry tracks cross the area, and a 40x50 km GPS grid was surveyed to calibrate ICESAT. A difficulty in using these data types is that both give salt surface elevations relative to the ellipsoid, whereas the water surface will, in the absence of wind or tidal disturbances, follow an equipotential surface. Geoid height is not known to the required accuracy of a few cm in the central Andes. As a result, before comparing optical absorption from MISR to salt surface topography from GPS or ICESAT, we removed the longest wavelengths from both.

Comstock, Robert L.↗

NASA NTRS2022

Global Hotspots of Salt Marsh Change and Carbon Emissions

Salt marshes provide ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, coastal protection, sea-level-rise (SLR) adaptation and recreation. SLR, storm events, drainage and mangrove encroachment are known drivers of salt marsh loss. However, the global magnitude and location of changes in salt marsh extent remains uncertain. Here we conduct a global and systematic change analysis of Landsat satellite imagery from the years 2000–2019 to quantify the loss, gain and recovery of salt marsh ecosystems and then estimate the impact of these changes on blue carbon stocks. We show a net salt marsh loss globally, equivalent to an area double the size of Singapore (719 km^2), with a loss rate of 0.28% year^(−1) from 2000 to 2019. Net global losses resulted in 16.3 (0.4–33.2, 90% confidence interval) Tg CO_2 e year^(−1) emissions from 2000 to 2019 and a 0.045 (−0.14–0.115) Tg CO_2 e year^(−1) reduction of carbon burial. Russia and the USA accounted for 64% of salt marsh losses, driven by hurricanes and coastal erosion. Our findings highlight the vulnerability of salt marsh systems to climatic changes such as SLR and intensification of storms and cyclones.

Carbon Monitoring↗

NASA NTRS2014

Salt Tolerance and Polyphyly in the Cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis (Pleurocapsales)1

Chroococcidiopsis Geitler (Geitler 1933) is a genus of cyanobacteria containing desiccation and radiation resistant species. Members of the genus live in habitats ranging from hot and cold deserts to fresh and saltwater environments. Morphology and cell division pattern have historically been used to define the genus. To better understand the genetic and phenotypic diversity of the genus, 15 species were selected that had been previously isolated from different locations, including salt and freshwater environments. Four markers were sequenced from these 15 species, the 16S rRNA, rbcL, desC1 and gltX genes. Phylogenetic trees were generated which identified two distinct clades, a salt-tolerant clade and a freshwater clade. This study demonstrates that the genus is polyphyletic based on saltwater and freshwater phenotypes. To understand the resistance to salt in more details, species were grown on a range of sea salt concentrations which demonstrated that the freshwater species were salt-intolerant whilst the saltwater species required salt for growth. This study shows an increased resolution of the phylogeny of Chroococcidiopsis and provides further evidence that the genus is polyphyletic and should be reclassified to improve clarity in the literature.

Genus↗

NASA NTRS1996

Salt-Finger Convection in a Stratified Fluid Layer Induced by Thermal and Solutal Capillary Motion

Salt-finger convection in a double-diffusive system is a motion driven by the release of gravitational potential due to different diffusion rates. Normally, when the gravitational field is reduced, salt-finger convection together with other convective motions driven by buoyancy forces will be rapidly suppressed. However, because the destabilizing effect of the concentration gradient is amplified by the Lewis number, with values varying from 10(exp 2) for aqueous salt solutions to 10 (exp 4) for liquid metals, salt-finger convection may be generated at much reduced gravity levels. In the microgravity environment, the surface tension gradient assumes a dominant role in causing fluid motion. In this paper, we report on some experimental results showing the generation of salt-finger convection due to capillary motio on the surface of a stratified fluid layer. A numerical simulation is presented to show the cause of salt-finger convection.

Chen, Chuan F.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Crystallization of Chicken Egg White Lysozyme from Sulfate Salts

It has been "known" that chicken egg white lysozyme does not crystallize from sulfate, particularly ammonium sulfate, salts, but instead gives amorphous precipitates. This has been the basis of several studies using lysozyme comparing macromolecule crystal nucleation and amorphous precipitation. Recently Ries-Kautt et al (Acta Cryst D50, (1994) 366) have shown that purified isoionic CEWL could be crystallized from low concentrations of sulfate at basic pH, and we subsequently showed that in fact CEWL could be purified in both the tetragonal and orthorhombic forms using ammonium sulfate over the pH range 4.0 to 7.8 (Acta Cryst D53, (1997) 795). We have now extended these observations to include a range of common sulfate salts, specifically sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, and manganese sulfates. In all cases but the manganese sulfates both the familiar tetragonal and orthorhombic forms were obtained, with unit cell dimensions close to those known for the "classic" sodium chloride crystallized forms. Manganese sulfate has only yielded orthorhombic crystals to date. All crystallizations were carried out using low (typically less than or equal to 6 M) salt and high (greater than approximately 90 mg/ml) protein concentrations. As with ammonium sulfate, the tetragonal - orthorhombic phase shift appears to be a function of both the temperature and the protein concentration, with higher temperatures and concentrations favoring the orthorhombic and lower the tetragonal form. The phase change range is somewhat reduced for the sulfate salts, depending upon conditions being typically between approximately 15 - 20 C. Both the magnesium and manganese sulfates gave crystals at salt concentrations over 0.6 M as well, with magnesium sulfate giving a very slowly nucleating and growing hexagonal form. A triclinic crystal form, characterized by aggressively small crystals (typically 0.1 mm in size) has been occasionally obtained from ammonium sulfate. Finally, preliminary spot solubility determinations have suggested that in some cases the solubility increases with increasing salt concentrations.

Forsythe, Elizabeth↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Molten Salt Electrolytes: Computational Analysis of Transport, Electrochemical Properties and Designing New Mixtures

Electric aircraft propulsion has gained a traction over the last decade due to possible high-energy density electrochemistries with reasonable cycle life and identification of non-flammable chemistries that can guarantee much better safety. Commercial Li-ion batteries cannot reach such high capacities because of weight limitations that arise from the widely used intercalation electrodes. Also, use of organic electrolytes make them highly susceptible to fire on exposure to air and humidity. Currently, use of Lithium metal anode along with conversion electrochemistries such as Li-O2 and Li-S are being pursued to achieve such high energy densities. Safer inorganic solid-state electrolytes, recently discovered Water-in-Salt electrolytes, molten salt electrolytes are some of the alternatives being pursued for a safer/non-flammable battery. Of these safer alternatives, molten-salt electrolytes offer some attractive properties: liquid at operating temperatures resulting in better electrode-wetting, stable interface with Li-metal anodes and good ionic conductivity; their only drawback being high operating temperatures. In this talk, we will discuss some of the computational studies, driven via atomistic simulations, of the properties of molten-salt electrolytes including transport mechanism and interface stability. We will also discuss predicting electrochemical properties of these high-temperature electrolytes. Further, we will discuss a thermodynamic approach to predicting new molten-salt eutectics with lower melting points.

Molten Salt Electrolytes↗

NASA NTRS1974

Salt-dependent properties of proteins from extremely halophilic bacteria

Based on information concerning the interaction of salts and macromolecules the literature of the enzymes of halophilic bacteria and their constituents is examined. Although in halophilic systems the salt requirement of enzyme activity is variable the enzymes investigated show a time-dependent inactivation at lower salt concentrations especially in the absence of salt. The studies described show that in some halophilic systems the effect of salt may be restricted to a small region on the protein molecule. The concept of the hydrophobic bond to consider certain solvent-dependent phenomena is introduced. It is shown that some halophilic enzymes are unable to maintain their structure without the involvement of hydrophobic interactions that are usually not supported by water. A table lists indices of hydrophobicity and polarity for various halophilic and nonhalophilic proteins.

Lanyi, J. K.↗

NASA NTRS1981

The salts of Mars

Salt compounds are apparently an important component of the fine-grained regolith on Mars. Salt enrichment may be explained either as a secondary concentration of chemical weathering products or as direct incorporation of planetary released volatiles. Geochemical measurements and chemical relationships constrain the salt species and resultant physicochemical consequences. A likely assemblage is dominated by (Mg,Na)SO4, NaCl, and (Mg,Ca)CO3. Formation of brine in equilibrium with such a salt mixture is unlikely under the temperature and water-vapor restrictions prevalent over most, if not all, of the Martian surface. Acidic conditions, accompanying salt formation, favor the preferential destruction of susceptible igneous minerals.

Clark, B. C.↗

NASA NTRS1983

High-temperature molten salt thermal energy storage systems for solar applications

Experimental results of compatibility screening studies of 100 salt/containment/thermal conductivity enhancement (TCE) combinations for the high temperature solar thermal application range of 704 deg to 871 C (1300 to 1600 F) are presented. Nine candidate containment/HX alloy materials and two TCE materials were tested with six candidate solar thermal alkali and alkaline earth carbonate storage salts (both reagent and technical grade of each). Compatibility tests were conducted with salt encapsulated in approx. 6.0 inch x 1 inch welded containers of test material from 300 to 3000 hours. Compatibility evaluations were end application oriented, considering the potential 30 year lifetime requirement of solar thermal power plant components. Analyses were based on depth and nature of salt side corrosion of materials, containment alloy thermal aging effects, weld integrity in salt environment, air side containment oxidation, and chemical and physical analyses of the salt. A need for more reliable, and in some cases first time determined thermophysical and transport property data was also identified for molten carbonates in the 704 to 871 C temperature range. In particular, accurate melting point (mp) measurements were performed for Li2CO3 and Na2CO3 while melting point, heat of fusion, and specific heat determinations were conducted on 81.3 weight percent Na2CO3-18.7 weight percent K2CO3 and 52.2 weight percent BaCO3-47.8 weight percent Na2CO3 to support future TES system design and ultimate scale up of solar thermal energy storage (TES) subsystems.

Petri, R. J.↗

NASA NTRS1995

Growth of single crystals of organic salts with large second-order optical nonlinearities by solution processes for devices

Data obtained from the electric field induced second harmonic generation (EFISH) and Kurtz Powder Methods will be provided to MSFC for further refinement of their method. A theoretical model for predicting the second-order nonlinearities of organic salts is being worked on. Another task is the synthesis of a number of salts with various counterions. Several salts with promising SHG activities and new salts will be tested for the presence of two crystalline forms. The materials will be recrystallized from dry and wet solvents and compared for SHG efficiency. Salts that have a high SHG efficiency and no tendency to form hydrates will be documented. The synthesis of these materials are included in this report. A third task involves method to aid in the growth of large, high quality single crystals by solution processes. These crystals will be characterized for their applicability in the fabrication of devices that will be incorporated into optical computers in future programs. Single crystals of optimum quality may be obtained by crystal growth in low-gravity. The final task is the design of a temperature lowering single crystal growth apparatus for ground based work. At least one prototype will be built.

Leslie, Thomas M.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Modeling of Dense Water Production and Salt Transport from Alaskan Coastal Polynyas

The main significance of this paper is that a realistic, three-dimensional, high-resolution primitive equation model has been developed to study the effects of dense water formation in Arctic coastal polynyas. The model includes realistic ambient stratification, realistic bottom topography, and is forced by time-variant surface heat flux, surface salt flux, and time-dependent coastal flow. The salt and heat fluxes, and the surface ice drift, are derived from satellite observations (SSM/I and NSCAT sensors). The model is used to study the stratification, salt transport, and circulation in the vicinity of Barrow Canyon during the 1996/97 winter season. The coastal flow (Alaska coastal current), which is an extension of the Bering Sea throughflow, is formulated in the model using the wind-transport regression. The results show that for the 1996/97 winter the northeastward coastal current exports 13% to 26% of the salt produced by coastal polynyas upstream of Barrow Canyon in 20 to 30 days. The salt export occurs more rapidly during less persistent polynyas. The inclusion of ice-water stress in the model makes the coastal current slightly weaker and much wider due to the combined effects of surface drag and offshore Ekman transport.

Signorini, Sergio R.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Salt Spray Test to Determine Galvanic Corrosion Levels of Electroless Nickel Connectors Mounted on an Aluminum Bracket

During preliminary vehicle design reviews, requests were made to change flight termination systems from an electroless nickel (EN) connector coating to a zinc-nickel (ZN) plating. The reason for these changes was due to a new NASA-STD-6012 corrosion requirement where connectors must meet the performance requirement of 168 hr of exposure to salt spray. The specification for class F connectors, MIL-DTL-38999, certifies the EN coating will meet a 48-hr salt spray test, whereas the ZN is certified to meet a 168-hr salt spray test. The ZN finish is a concern because Marshall Space Flight Center has no flight experience with ZN-finished connectors, and MSFC-STD-3012 indicates that zinc and zinc alloys should not be used. The purpose of this test was to run a 168-hr salt spray test to verify the electrical and mechanical integrity of the EN connectors and officially document the results. The salt spray test was conducted per ASTM B117 on several MIL-DTL-38999 flight-like connectors mounted to an aluminum 6061-T6 bracket that was alodined. The configuration, mounting techniques, electrical checks, and materials used were typical of flight and ground support equipment.

Rolin, T. D.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Salt Pill Design and Fabrication for Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerators

The performance of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is critically dependent on the design and construction of the salt pills that produce cooling. In most cases, the primary goal is to obtain the largest cooling capacity at the low temperature end of the operating range. The realizable cooling capacity depends on a number of factors, including refrigerant mass, and how efficiently it absorbs heat from the various instrument loads. The design and optimization of "salt pills" for ADR systems depend not only on the mechanical, chemical and thermal properties of the refrigerant, but also on the range of heat fluxes that the salt pill must accommodate. Despite the fairly wide variety of refrigerants available, those used at very low temperature tend to be hydrated salts that require a dedicated thermal bus and must be hermetically sealed, while those used at higher temperature - greater than about 0.5 K - tend to be single-‐ or poly-‐crystals that have much simpler requirements for thermal and mechanical packaging. This paper presents a summary of strategies and techniques for designing, optimizing and fabricating salt pills for both low-‐ and mid-‐temperature applications.

sub-kelvin cooling↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Designing Molten Salt Eutectics: A Combined Thermodynamic Modeling and Machine Learning Approach

Designing stable electrolytes with target properties is an important challenge in realizing next generation energy storage devices. Molten salt eutectics-based electrolytes are known for their stability with minimal parasitic reactions when compared to traditional organic electrolytes and are an attractive option for different battery chemistries. The operating temperature of the molten salt batteries depends on the melting temperature of the eutectic and hence there is a necessity to discover novel low melting temperature molten salt eutectic mixtures for energy storage applications. In this work we develop a high throughput computational screening approach for molten salt mixtures using thermodynamic modeling and machine learning (ML). COSMO-SAC model and ML approaches were independently developed based on the existing experimental data and these models were further used to predict the eutectic melting temperature and composition of several new binary, ternary, and quaternary mixtures. We show that combining ML and thermodynamic modeling strategies is effective in exploring the vast design space of molten salt mixtures.

Thermodynamics↗

NASA NTRS2021

Importance of Quantifying the Full-depth Carbon Reservoir of Jamaica Bay Salt Marshes, New York

Constraining uncertainty in the global carbon cycle requires valid assessment of both surface and stored carbon in marine and coastal ecosystems (Blue Carbon) as well as terrestrial carbon (forests, peatlands, and soils) [Pendleton et al., 2012]. Quantifying the global carbon stock of coastal salt marshes, potentially the most efficient carbon-burying ecosystems in the world per area, is a key area of further research in both of these fields Pendleton et al., 2012. One of the largest challenges is that despite the fact that salt marshes often sequester carbon several meters deep, nearly all estimates of salt marsh carbon stocks consider only the upper 1 m of sediment (Windham-Myers et al., 2015) [54]. This is particularly concerning because coastal wetlands are increasingly at risk due to climate change, sea level rise, and anthropogenic disturbance and destruction (Deegan et al., 2012) [15]. Using full-depth measurements from marsh cores, we estimate the carbon stock of five salt marshes in the highly urbanized estuary of Jamaica Bay, New York and argue that partial-depth measurements can underestimate carbon stocks. These estimates use calculated carbon content and probe depth data of these marshes collected between 2000 and 2019, applying this data across the full area of the marsh obtained from satellite imagery. Carbon density measurements are then multiplied by the full-depth volume of the marshes to create an estimate of total carbon stock. In addition to calculating present-day estimates, we compare our carbon stock estimates to historical Jamaica Bay imagery to calculate historical carbon stocks and carbon loss. The carbon stock estimates presented here show a 95% carbon stock loss between 1885 and 2019 in Jamaica Bay and highlight the severe underestimation of carbon stocks without full-depth calculations. These findings have important implications for disappearing salt marshes with regard to the global carbon cycle and the incorporation of belowground carbon into global climate models. The findings are increasingly relevant for advocacy efforts aiming to conserve these marshes with sea level rise.

Tidal wetlands↗