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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2025

Mobility and threshold voltage extraction in transistors with gate-voltage-dependent contact resistance

The mobility of emerging (e.g., two-dimensional, oxide, organic) semiconductors is commonly estimated from transistor current-voltage measurements. However, such devices often experience contact gating, i.e., electric fields from the gate modulate the contact resistance during measurements, which can lead conventional extraction techniques to estimate mobility incorrectly even by a factor >2. Although this error can be minimized by measuring transistors at high gate-source bias |V gs |, this regime is often inaccessible in emerging devices that suffer from high contact resistance or early gate dielectric breakdown. Here, we propose a method of extracting mobility in transistors with gate-dependent contact resistance that does not require operation at high |V gs |, enabling accurate mobility extraction even in emerging transistors with strong contact gating. Our approach relies on updating the transfer length method (TLM) and can achieve <10% error even in regimes where conventional techniques overestimate mobility by >2×

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

CORSAIR: A Framework for Human Mobility Prediction through Visit Characterization and Spatial Behavior Modeling

The rapid advancement of location acquisition technologies has led to the daily collection of vast amounts of mobile trajectory data, facilitating in-depth research on human mobility and enabling more accurate mobility prediction models. However, existing methodologies often fall short in capturing the intricate dynamics of human navigation and spatial behavior. This paper addresses this gap by exploring the multifaceted relationships between individuals and their environments, considering the diverse influences of personal preferences and experiences. Some places hold sentimental value and are visited frequently, while others serve as transient points of passage. To model these differences, we introduce CORSAIR, a novel visit characterization framework that leverages visitation patterns and dwell times to delineate an individual’s relationship with specific places. CORSAIR classifies visits into seven distinct types: casual, occasional, routine, special, anchor, important, and resettling. Also, we show that explicitly recognizing these distinct visit types and incorporating nuanced visit intents into mobility prediction models leads to a substantial improvement in prediction accuracy. This distinction allows for more precise modeling of the individual’s transitions, enhancing the personalization and relevance of location-based services. Our findings suggest that a deeper understanding of the complexities of individual-environment interactions is crucial for developing effective predictive tools in mobility research.

Amichi, Licia [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000177631394)↗

DOE OSTI2024

HumoNet: A Framework for Realistic Modeling and Simulation of Human Mobility Network

Understanding, analyzing, and predicting human mobility and dynamics are valuable to solving pressing problems, developing effective plans, and prescribing timely remedies. As a computational approach, realistic human mobility simulations allow us to understand, analyze, and predict complex systems, including human societies. Accurate simulations rely on (1) the model that captures interactions and behaviors of myriad entities in our society and (2) the mapping of model instances to real-world entities. Taking this into account, this paper introduces the Human Mobility Network simulation framework (HumoNet), an integrated patterns of life (POL) simulation framework that leverages real-world data layers including transportation networks, points of interest, populations, popularity, and human trajectories. HumoNet is a data informed model in which agents are equipped with activities, locomotion, and planning capabilities. To simulate realistic kinematic maneuvers of individuals in transportation networks, HumoNet harnesses a microscopic traffic simulator that provides interaction among vehicles and traffic objects. In this paper, we describe the framework, outline our methodologies, and discuss the data processing and challenges of each data layer. Through experiments, we demonstrate that our simulations capture key features of human mobility by comparing them to the literature and real data using standard measures of human mobility (i.e., the radius of gyration, number of locations visited, level of exploration) and metrics scoring (i.e., Jensen-Shannon divergence). We envision that the synthetic data produced by HumoNet will serve as a benchmark for analyzing epidemics, deploying EV charging networks, and validating AI/ML tasks such as location prediction.

Kim, Joon-Seok↗

DOE OSTI2024

Ion Mobility Separations Using Cocentric Architecture

Ion mobility separations are usually performed in linear channels, which, when extended, can have a large footprint. In this work, we explored the performance of an ion mobility device with a curved architecture which can have a more compact form. The Co-centric Ion Mobility Spectrometer (CIMS) works by manipulating ions between two co-centric surfaces, each containing a serpentine track. The mobility separation inside CIMS is achieved using traveling waveforms (TWs). We initially evaluated the device using ion trajectory simulations using SIMION, which indicated that when ions traveled circularly inside CIMS, they resulted in similar resolving powers and transmitted m/z range as traveling in a straight path in structures for lossless ion manipulations (SLIM). We then performed experimental validation of CIMS in conjunction with a TOF MS. The CIMS was made of 2 flexible printed circuit board materials folded into concentric cylinders separated by a gap of 2.8 mm. The device was about 50 mm diameter × 152 mm long and provided 1.846 m of serpentine path length. Three sets of mixtures (Agilent tune mixture, tetraalkylammonium salts, and 8 peptide mixture) and four traveling waveform profiles (square, sine, triangle, and sawtooth) were used. The sawtooth TW profile produced a slightly higher resolving power for the Agilent tuning mixture and tetraalkylammonium ions. The average resolving power for Agilent tune mixture ions ranged from 37 (using sawtooth TW) to 27 (using square TW). For tetraalkylammonium ions, the average resolving powers ranged from 45 (sawtooth TW) to 31 (square TW). For the peptide mixture ions, the resolving power was similar among the four TW profiles and ranged from 51 to 56. The average percent error in TW CCS for the peptide mixture ions ranged was about 0.4%. In conclusion, the new device showed promising results for a device made of a flexible printed circuit board material, but improvements are needed to further increase the resolving power.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

A Multi-Region SEIR Model Incorporating Inter-County Mobility and Time-Dependent Transmission Dynamics: Application to COVID-19 Disease Outbreak Data in North Carolina.

Classical infectious disease compartmental models typically do not incorporate spatial heterogeneity or mobility. We develop a multi-region susceptible-exposed-infected-recovered (SEIR) model in which disease dynamics are coupled via inter-region mobility and the transmission rate is both region and time dependent. We calibrate the model using rolling averages of daily COVID-19 data in all 100 North Carolina counties. Mobility parameters are prescribed using daily inter-county commuter data. The number of transmission rate parameters is substantially reduced by hypothesizing that the dynamics correlate with county-level population density. Parameter estimation is carried out using several objective functions with error terms at different scales. An additive combination of least squares error at the county-level and the state-level, along with a quadratic transmission rate polynomial, yields the lowest overall error at both spatial scales. The calibrated model is used to simulate regional effects of perturbing disease transmission rates in adjacent counties and to illustrate effects of the state’s mobility infrastructure on disease dynamics and spread for a new disease outbreak.

COVID-19 modeling↗

DOE OSTI2024

Development of a Platform for High-Resolution Ion Mobility Separations Coupled with Messenger Tagging Infrared Spectroscopy for High-Precision Structural Characterizations

The ability to uniquely identify a compound requires highly precise and orthogonal measurements. Here we describe a newly developed analytical platform that integrates high resolution ion mobility and cryogenic vibrational ion spectroscopy for high-precision structural characterizations. This platform allows for the temporal separation of isomeric/isobaric ions and provides a highly sensitive description of the ion’s adopted geometry in the gas phase. The combination of these orthogonal structural measurements yields precise descriptors that can be used to resolve between and confidently identify highly similar ions. The unique benefits of our instrument, which integrates a structures for lossless ion manipulations ion mobility (SLIM IM) device with messenger tagging infrared spectroscopy, include the ability to perform high-resolution ion mobility separations and to record the IR spectra of all ions simultaneously. The SLIM IM device, with its 13 m separation path length, allows for multipass experiments to be performed for increased resolution as needed. It is integrated with an Agilent qTOF MS where the collision cell was replaced with a cryogenically held (30 K) TW-SLIM module. The cryo-SLIM is operated in a novel manner that allows ions to be streamed through the device and collisionally cooled to a temperature where they can form noncovalently bound N 2 complexes that are maintained as they exit the device and are detected by the TOF mass analyzer. The instrument can be operated in two modes: IMS+IR where the IR spectra for mobility-selected ions can be recorded and IR-only mode where the IR spectra for all mass-resolved ions can be recorded. In IR-only mode, IR spectra (400 cm –1 spectral range) can be recorded in as short as 2 s for high throughput measurements. Further, this work details the construction of the instrument and modes of operation. It provides initial benchmarking of CCS and IR measurements to demonstrate the utility of this instrument for targeted and untargeted approaches.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2026

Large Polaron Screening Delays Mobility Roll-Off in Halide Perovskites under High Injection

The interplay between carrier density regimes and the various scattering processes is fundamental for understanding charge transport efficiency in high-performance semiconductors. Combining ultrafast time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy (TRTS) and transient microwave photoconductivity (TRMC), we measure carrier mobilities over 7 orders of magnitude (10 13 –10 20 carriers cm –3 ), reaching a regime where carrier–carrier scattering dominates and mobility begins to roll off. We find the Caughey–Thomas model can be effectively employed for transport modeling in 3D metal halide perovskites (MHPs), and the mobility roll-off near ∼10 19 cm –3 can be tuned by MHP composition. Carrier lifetime in MHPs starts decreasing at much lower carrier densities due to interband multi-carrier recombination, while intraband carrier mobility remains unchanged as carrier–carrier scattering is screened by the presence of polarons. The validated Caughey–Thomas model provides a practical input for device simulations, prevents overestimation of diffusion length under high injection, and suggests that MHPs are excellent candidates for unipolar device applications under high carrier densities.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Biaxial Tensile Strain Enhances Electron Mobility of Monolayer Transition Metal Dichalcogenides

Strain engineering can modulate the material properties of two-dimensional (2D) sem- iconductors for electronic and optoelectronic applications. Recent theory and experiments have found that uniaxial tensile strain can improve the electron mobility of monolayer MoS 2 , a 2D semiconductor, but the effects of biaxial strain on charge transport are not well-understood in 2D semiconductors. Here, we use biaxial tensile strain on flexible substrates to probe the electron mobility in monolayer WS 2 and MoS 2 transistors. Further, this approach experimentally achieves ~2× higher on-state current and mobility with ~0.3% applied biaxial strain in WS 2 , the highest mobility improvement at the lowest strain reported to date. We also examine the mechanisms behind this improvement through density functional theory simulations, concluding that the enhancement is primarily due to reduced intervalley electron-phonon scattering. These results underscore the role of strain engineering 2D semiconductors for flexible electronics, sensors, integrated circuits, and other opto-electronic applications.

2D materials↗

DOE OSTI2024

Innovative Advanced Hydrogen Mobile Fueler (Final Technical Report)

The US Department of Energy (DOE) funded a project to design, develop, deploy and analyze the economic viability of an innovative Advanced Hydrogen Mobile Fueler (AHMF). As part of the design activity the project team defined specifications based upon vehicle requirements and compliance with specific fueling performance criteria. The AHMF was originally designed to fuel 10-20 fuel cell vehicles (FCV) per day, consistent with the requirements of the H70 fueling category. The AHMF is able to operate without remote power connections, is modular for easy transport and deployment, and can provide expanded daily capacity and multi-day operations using delivered gaseous hydrogen. Toward the end of the project, due to request from the hydrogen industry and some necessary modifications of the AHMF, the system is now modified to fuel heavy duty vehicles. The project was conducted over two primary phases, each including several key tasks, subtasks, and project milestones. Phase 1 involved the design, development, and construction of the AHMF, moving from a conceptual design through to completion of assembly and testing. In addition to reviewing several different approaches, the team chose to take a conventional station design and modify it for mobile fueling. There were several innovative components included in the design. The high pressure storage was the first to achieve a US Department of Energy (DOE) Special Permit (SP 20391) to transport high pressure hydrogen (95 MPa) in a composite cylinder. The second novel system was a liquid nitrogen (LIN) cooling system with a compact heat exchanger. Without this change, the cooling system would not be able to fit into the AHMF. Phase 2 demonstrated the AHMF by fueling fuel cell buses at a fleet in Pomona, CA. The site was chosen because a temporary fueling solution was required while a fixed station was being installed. The existing permits for the fixed station and non-public access also was a determining factor. Over two months, the buses were fueled 320 times with over 5000 kg of hydrogen from tube trailers. Existing shore power was used, and the average electrical efficiency was 0.13 kWh/kg. The average liquid nitrogen (LIN) consumption was 90.68 scf/kg. The fueling and consumption data was provided to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) for analysis. An economic analysis was performed and will be provided in a separate report. The project was successful, but not without challenges and lessons learned. The DOT special permit led the way for the use of high pressure, composite cylinders and is being by multiple other systems and applications. The pandemic along with time for the DOT special permit approval delayed the project for years. The team also believes that hydrogen mobile fueling has a use for the industry, especially during this upcoming phase of expansion. However, it does have its limitations due to high cost to build and operate, and the same permitting challenges as a fixed station. A fully capable system at the speeds and pressures of the AHMF may not be necessary for most applications and would help reduce the cost and increase storage capacity. The on-board generator can be easily replaced with shore power or the wide range of power generation solutions in the marketplace. One of the major results of the project was the development of new code language in National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 2 and the International Fire Code (IFC) for on-demand mobile fueling. This will provide guidance for Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) and user on how to permit temporary fueling sites across the nation.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Integrating the Mobility Energy Productivity Metric Into the Delaware Department of Transportation Statewide Model

The Mobility Energy Productivity (MEP) metric quantifies the quality of mobility at a given location and evaluates how changes in the transportation system impact mobility over time, such as through infrastructure investments. This study demonstrates the integration of the MEP metric into the Delaware Department of Transportation's (DelDOT's) transportation planning process by utilizing data from its statewide travel demand model. Specifically, the study assesses MEP for the 2020 baseline conditions and three alternative scenarios - 2030, Churchman, and Old Orchard - across multiple travel modes, including driving, walking, biking, and transit. The findings highlight that mobility and accessibility in Delaware are primarily supported by the driving mode, while transit services remain relatively limited, often ranking below biking and walking in many areas. In the 2030 scenario, where network operations and opportunities expand as projected, overall statewide accessibility declines, although Kent and Sussex counties experience improvements. The results from the Churchman and Old Orchard scenarios indicate that local network enhancements can positively influence accessibility, though primarily at a localized level, demonstrating MEP's capability to capture regional accessibility changes. Further, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory team successfully transferred MEP operational knowledge to the DelDOT team through dockerization, enabling DelDOT to independently run MEP for various scenarios of interest. Integrating MEP into DelDOT's planning framework supports future project evaluations and decision-making by incorporating access to opportunities as a key dimension of transportation system assessment.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2025

New Mobility Technology Assessment - Benefits, Risks, and Safety

The age of vehicle automation is upon us. The fundamental perception and control technology is maturing as we speak (and write) with robo-taxis proliferating in select US cities. The news cycle is no longer filled with technological skepticism, but rather societal commentary on our collective response and use of the technology. This maturing of the technology is also accompanied by a renaissance in new types of urban movement technology to more effectively link people with goods, services, and employment, particularly in dense development areas where vehicle congestion (even automated vehicles) prevents high quality mobility. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, through the DOE Clean Energy to Communities (C2C) program has worked with two jurisdictions to assess the benefits, risks, and safety concerns for a new product offering based on suspended cable technology which is fully automated and proposes an aerial network of self-propelled gondolas. The recognized need, independent of the technology, is to fairly assess the benefits of the proposed transportation system, assess its technical maturity, as well as risks and safety concerns. Using this new technology as an example, a technology represented by Swyft Cities, NREL developed a succession of mini-studies that characterized the technical maturity level, assessed the proposed benefits for Greenville, SC, examined the risks involved in moving forward with an emerging mobility technology, and determined the governing safety protocols and standards that are applicable to the space. These mini-case studies, though centered on Swyft Cities aerial automated gondola technology, are highly transferable to any type of new mobility technology and lays out a repeatable process for assessing new technology within an city or community context.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Data-driven modeling of dislocation mobility from atomistics using physics-informed machine learning

Dislocation mobility, which dictates the response of dislocations to an applied stress, is a fundamental property of crystalline materials that governs the evolution of plastic deformation. Traditional approaches for deriving mobility laws rely on phenomenological models of the underlying physics, whose free parameters are in turn fitted to a small number of intuition-driven atomic scale simulations under varying conditions of temperature and stress. This tedious and time-consuming approach becomes particularly cumbersome for materials with complex dependencies on stress, temperature, and local environment, such as body-centered cubic crystals (BCC) metals and alloys. In this paper, we present a novel, uncertainty quantification-driven active learning paradigm for learning dislocation mobility laws from automated high-throughput large-scale molecular dynamics simulations, using Graph Neural Networks (GNN) with a physics-informed architecture. We demonstrate that this Physics-informed Graph Neural Network (PI-GNN) framework captures the underlying physics more accurately compared to existing phenomenological mobility laws in BCC metals.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Impact of Tiny Fermi Pockets with Extremely High Mobility on the Hall Anomaly in the Kagome Metal CsV 3 ⁢Sb 5

The kagome metal CsV 3 ⁢Sb 5 exhibits an unusual charge-density-wave (CDW) order, where the emergence of loop current order that breaks time-reversal symmetry (TRS) has been proposed. A key feature of this CDW phase is a nonmonotonic Hall effect at low fields, often attributed to TRS breaking. However, its origin remains unclear. Here, we conduct comprehensive magnetotransport measurements on CsV 3 ⁢Sb 5 and, through mobility spectrum analysis, identify the formation of tiny Fermi pockets with extremely high mobility below the CDW transition. Furthermore, electron irradiation experiments reveal that the nonmonotonic Hall effect is significantly suppressed in samples with reduced mobility, despite no substantial change in the electronic structure. In conclusion, these results indicate that the nonmonotonic Hall effect originates from these tiny Fermi pockets with high mobility carriers rather than anomalous Hall mechanisms, providing new insights into understanding the Hall anomaly in this kagome system.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

A Visual Analytic Platform for Interactive Validation of Human Mobility Simulations

Human mobility insights guide domain experts in an array of decisions, including critical infrastructure design, disaster response, epidemic modeling, national security, and policy making. Due to the inherent noise and privacy concerns in real-world individual-level mobility data, it is often preferred to leverage simulators that generate synthetic mobility data instead. However, it is critical to inspect and validate the output of such simulators to ensure the synthetic data is aligned with the characteristics of the population and the area of interest known to domain experts. While there exist many quantitative approaches for validating synthetic data, we argue it is also important to also validate such data qualitatively to capture aspects that are known to domain experts but difficult to quantify. In this work, we demonstrate a visual analytic platform that empowers domain experts to interact with their simulation outputs along spatial and temporal dimensions. By augmenting automated techniques and human skills, our visual analytic platform is a step towards interactive capabilities for model steering and quality control of mobility simulators.

Monadjemi, Shayan↗

DOE OSTI2025

Development of the Contamination Distribution Centered Toxics Mobility Vulnerability Index in the Beaumont–Port Arthur Region of Texas

This study advances the Toxics Mobility Inventory (TMI) and the Toxics Mobility Vulnerability Index (TMVI) to develop a new tool to assess the movement of hazardous substances and their implications for vulnerable communities. It emphasizes the need to include contamination distribution variables in such indices to address disproportionate impacts and more accurately reflect vulnerability. The study uses the TMI framework and TMVI methodology in the Beaumont–Port Arthur region of Texas, also integrating contamination distribution considerations into the analysis to develop a new framework and process. The new Contamination Distribution Centered Toxics Mobility Vulnerability Index (CDC-TMVI) consolidates climate change and topography variables into a broader built environment vulnerability category while introducing a contamination sources category. Using ArcGIS Pro and ToxPi tools, the study evaluates 27 geospatial variables across four categories: built environment vulnerability, social vulnerability, health outcomes, and contamination sources. The results indicate significant contributions from contamination and social vulnerability variables, highlighting areas with higher risks of flooding and air pollution. This article advocates for future research and policy efforts to enhance the integration of contamination sources and their spatial distributions into toxics mobility assessments to better protect vulnerable populations. Furthermore, the unique methodology and findings serve as a basis for developing targeted measures and strategic planning to improve environmental health.

contamination↗

DOE OSTI2025

Shared and Ownership Mobility Technologies in the US: Data Availability and Usage Trends

This report supports the vision for a more sustainable transportation future by summarizing and analyzing the latest data on new mobility technologies, including ridesharing, shared and privately owned bikes, e-bikes, and scooters that have emerged over the past two decades. Having access to accurate and current data that is representative of new mobility systems and individual usage of these systems across different parts of the country is critical for researchers, city and regional planning professionals, and current and potential industry technology developers to better understand and forecast usage trends both nationwide as well as across different existing and potential future markets across the country. Building on the previous study published in 2022, this report incorporates the latest available market and usage data on new mobility technologies and compares usage by Chicago and New York City demographic characteristics. Moreover, this report includes recent developments and insights on privately owned micromobility technologies. Our analysis found that more downtown areas in Chicago show high per capita usage for all three modes than in the previous study, likely due to the full launch of shared e-scooter systems citywide in 2022. Notably, the majority of high shared mobility usage is concentrated in high-income, densely populated downtown areas in Chicago, which also have good public transit access. In contrast, TNC and bikeshare usage hotspots in central Manhattan are more widely distributed, though also appear to be shaped by the geography of the public transit system. Analysis of privately owned micromobility shows that the greatest energy savings occurred when e-bikes replaced single-occupancy vehicle (SOV) trips (i.e., gasoline-powered cars driven alone). Based on the literature review and analysis results, we also make recommendations for supporting the development of both shared and privately owned micromobility programs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2024

Shared Use Travel Behavior for Improving Rural Mobility: Insights from Greene County, Pennsylvania

Rural communities are considered disadvantaged communities as they suffer from a lack of transport options. Thus, rural regionsprovide less accessibility for commuters to reach their destination as opposed to urban regions. However, the issues of transport disadvantageand shared use mobility in rural areas within the United States (US) have not been well investigated. Furthermore, transport disadvantagediffers between communities and regions across the globe; thus, there is a need to study the behavioral choices of rural commuters within theUS context. This study contributes by analyzing the behavioral choices of rural communities within the US through a case study site ofWaynesburg, Pennsylvania, for adopting a shared use shuttle service. K-means clusters showed that trips from the survey data were a goodrepresentation of real trips from Ecolane. Furthermore, random parameter-based binary logit models were calibrated using data collected fromstudents, faculty, and residents in Waynesburg, Greene County, to study the behavioral choices of commuters. The findings for the faculty andstudents group revealed that prior experience with shared services increases the likelihood of using a shared shuttle. An important personalcharacteristic of inconvenience showed a higher propensity toward using existing modes as opposed to a shared shuttle. Such commutersvalue personal vehicles as more convenient as they have childcare responsibilities and varying schedules for work that require them to moveback and forth across locations, thus making a shared shuttle less attractive for them. The socioeconomic factors of age and gender show ahigher propensity for using shared shuttles. Furthermore, the findings from this study could be helpful for agencies in improving rural mobility andconsidering such shared mobility services for rural communities

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2024

Security of Mobile Radiological Sources: Overview of Industry Applied Technologies

Small radiological sources used in industrial settings recurrently require transit between job sites. Securing these sources, while stationary, can be addressed with standard security approaches and equipment. Transport of these sources increases the risk and complexity of managing and maintaining control of these sources. Implementing methodologies to securely monitor and locate sources improves response and resolution of anomalous events during transit. The Mobile Source Transit Security (MSTS) system was developed to improve security and provide situational awareness of these mobile sources throughout their job cycle. The MSTS development effort focused on creating a set of systems that could be successfully implemented in industrial radiography and well-logging applications. The MSTS team worked to address source presence and location through use and storage. The MSTS system monitors radiological sources as they move from the base of operations to the job site and back. The system provides near-real-time monitoring of the mobile source location and status and early notification of source loss or theft by transmitting operational status and alerting anomalous conditions over telematic links worldwide. The MSTS system can trigger an armed response or initiation of search and recovery operations and will automatically alert management and responsible staff if a radioactive source is lost or stolen whether it is on-site, in transport, or in storage.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗