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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Advancing Ethanol-to-Jet cost Effectiveness via direct conversion to n -Butene-Rich olefins and Co-Product Valorization

Ethanol is a promising feedstock for sustainable aviation fuel production; however, conventional routes face significant energy and cost challenges, particularly due to the ethanol dehydration step to ethylene. Here, this study leverages breakthrough experimental data to perform comprehensive techno-economic and life-cycle assessments of an innovative ethanol-to-jet process. The process employs a single-step catalytic conversion, enabled by multifunctional Cu-ZrO 2 /SBA-16 catalyst, to directly upgrade ethanol into a mixed olefin stream rich in n-butene. The single-step conversion eliminates the costly ethanol dehydration step in the conventional process. High selectivity toward n-butene offers key advantages: it simplifies downstream oligomerization into jet-range hydrocarbons and enables the co-production of renewable n-butene alongside sustainable aviation fuel. The analysis estimates a minimum fuel selling price as low as $\$$2.50 per gallon, whether using corn ethanol or cellulosic ethanol from corn stover. Life cycle CO 2 equivalent emissions are projected to be as low as 10.6 g CO 2 eq/MJ sustainable aviation fuel, representing over 70% reduction compared to conventional petroleum-based jet fuel. This one-step ethanol upgrading approach not only facilitates SAF and n-butene co-production but also provides operational flexibility. The ability to tailor product outputs allows the ethanol-to-jet process to adapt to varying feedstocks, incentive programs, and market dynamics, ultimately enhancing the economic viability of sustainable aviation fuel production.

Xu, Yiling [Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Hydrocracking Plastic Mixtures into Xylene

Our research aims to tackle the challenge in recycling end-of-life plastics, the accumulation of which has become a grand challenge to our society, sustainability and economy. Guided by life-cycle assessment (LCA) and tech-economic analysis (TEA), we specifically target the catalytic conversion of low-cost #3-7 plastic mixtures ($\$$5/ton) into p-xylene (>$\$$1000/ton), one of the most valuable hydrocarbon products. This goal is achieved by carrying out integrated research including catalysis, process engineering, and reactor design. The ultimate goal of this project is to enable energy-efficient and economically viable depolymerization of end-of-life plastic mixtures into value-added commodity chemicals.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Direct flue gas capture for algae cultivation and subsequent valorization: evaluating life cycle emissions and costs

Algae cultivation and processing is an important pathway under discussion within the broader CO 2 capture and utilization umbrella. Here, we discuss the results of a life-cycle analysis and techno-economic analysis of a pilot-scale photobioreactor that uses flue gas directly from natural gas or biogas combustion at 3–5% CO 2 concentration. The system requires minimal freshwater use as it has been successfully run with industrial wastewater and has a much smaller areal footprint compared with open pond cultivation. Introducing the flue gas directly to the photobioreactor avoids the need for CO 2 separation and pressurization, which is undertaken in many other algae cultivation systems. For the end-use of the biomass, the default case assumes conversion of algae to liquid fuels via hydrothermal liquefaction. The results indicate that the pilot-scale system has a higher cost, and comparable greenhouse gas emissions compared to pond-based systems, especially as the grid is anticipated to evolve to a lower carbon intensity. The costs of algae biofuel production range from $\$12–16$ per GGE at the current pilot scale. Depending on whether the source of the carbon is fossil or biogenic, the net emissions are 68 g CO 2 e per MJ and −4 g CO 2 e per MJ respectively. If the marine algae species is used instead of the freshwater species, it offers an additional 16 g CO 2 e per MJ carbon fixation in the form of calcium carbonate. The findings point to broadly desirable trends in GHG emissions and costs, while the discussion aims to shed light on areas that could further improve the scalability of the system.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Low Carbon Intensity Formic Acid Chemical Synthesis from Direct Air Captured CO 2 Utilizing Chemical Plant Waste Heat - Final Technical Report

The primary objective of Low Carbon Intensity Formic Acid Chemical Synthesis from Direct Air Captured CO 2 Utilizing Chemical Plant Waste Heat (ChemFADAC) is to execute and complete a FEED study for an integrated direct air capture (DAC) and carbon conversion system (together, the DACUS system) co-located at a Nutrien nitric acid production facility in Kennewick, WA capable of capturing and converting a minimum of 5,000 MT/year net atmospheric CO 2 to low carbon intensity formic acid (FA) using industrial waste heat and renewable electricity. The goal will be achieved through the completion of four objectives using a collaborative approach with community stakeholders. Objective 1. Conduct a FEED study and Class 3 project cost estimate for the proposed DACUS system that maximizes use of thermal energy from the Nutrien KFO host site to produce low carbon intensity FA from atmospheric CO 2 . Objective 2. Perform a cradle-to-gate life-cycle analysis of the DACUS system to determine the environmental sustainability and carbon intensity (CI) of the proposed project and product from the results of the FEED study. Objective 3. Perform a business case analysis from results of the LCA, FEED study and cost estimate to justify investment to build the DACUS project at the Nutrien KFO site. Objective 4. Quantify how deployment of the proposed technology will promote and prepare a ready workforce for clean energy and manufacturing jobs and coordinate with community stakeholders to perform an environmental justice and a preliminary economic revitalization and job creation outcomes analysis.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Conversion of Waste PET Plastic to Aramid Fiber

A three-step synthesis was used to convert waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into the high value polymer, poly-para-phenylene terephthalamide (PPTA), used in the production of high strength aramid fiber, such as Kevlar. Improvements to the polymerization reaction by addition of calcium chloride to the solvent, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), and rigorous anhydrous conditions enabled the production of a PET-derived PPTA with a 4.15 dL/g inherent viscosity in sulfuric acid that is amenable to fiber spinning. PPTA fibers were spun using a wet spinning apparatus under varied process parameters to assess their impact on fiber surface morphology, diameter, and the mechanical properties of the fibers. Select fibers were subjected to a post-spinning heat treatment at 150 °C , which improved the tensile strength and modulus by 100% and 30%, respectively, relative to the as-spun fibers. Techno-economic and life cycle analyses were conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility and the life-cycle greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions of the approach. In conclusion, the results suggest the potential for up to a 30% cost reduction, and comparable GHG emissions against conventional petroleum-based processes.

Lifecycle Analysis↗
DOE OSTI2025

Trends and 2025 Insights on the Rise of Electric Vehicles in the USA

Plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) are reshaping the transportation energy landscape, providing a practical alternative to petroleum fuels for a growing number of applications. EV sales grew 55x in the past decade (2014-2024) and 6x since 2020, driven by technological progress enabled by policies to reduce transportation emissions as well as industrial plans motivated by strategic value of EVs for global competitiveness, jobs and geopolitics. In 2024, 22% of passenger cars sold globally were EVs and opportunities for EVs beyond on-road applications are growing, including solutions to electrify off-road vehicles, maritime and aviation. This Review updates and expands our 2020 assessment of the scientific literature and describes the current status and future projections of EV markets, charging infrastructures, vehicle-grid integration and supply chains in the USA. EV is the lowest-emission motorized on-road transportation option, with life-cycle emissions decreasing as electricity emissions continue to decrease. Charging infrastructure grew in line with EV adoption but providing ubiquitous reliable and convenient charging remains a challenge. EVs are reducing electricity costs in several US markets and coordinated EV charging can improve grid resilience and reduce electricity costs for all consumers. The current trajectory of technology improvement and industrial investments points to continued acceleration of EVs.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Coupling Amorphization and Compositional Optimization of Ternary Metal Phosphides toward High-Performance Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Production

Amorphous materials, with abundant active sites and unique electronic configurations, have the potential to outperform their crystalline counterparts in high-performance catalysis for clean energy. However, their synthesis and compositional optimization remain underexplored due to the strict conditions required for their formation. Here, in this study, we report the synthesis of ternary platinum-nickel-phosphorus (PtNiP) amorphous nanoparticles (ANPs) within milliseconds by flash Joule heating, which features ultrafast cooling that enables the vitrification of metal precursors. Through compositional optimization, the Gibbs free energy of hydrogen adsorption for Pt 4 Ni 4 P 1 ANPs is optimized at 0.02 eV, an almost ideal value, even surpassing that of the benchmark metallic platinum catalyst. As a result, the PtNiP ANPs exhibited superior activity in electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution in acid electrolyte (η 10 ∼ 14 mV, Tafel slope ∼ 18 mV dec –1 , and mass activity 5× higher than state-of-the-art Pt/C). Life-cycle assessment and technoeconomic analysis suggest that, compared to existing processes, our approach enables notable reductions in greenhouse gas emission, energy consumption, and production cost for practical electrolyzer catalyst manufacturing.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Comparative life-cycle assessments and techno-economic analysis of renewable natural gas production pathways from biogas

Renewable natural gas (RNG) offers a promising pathway for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors. This study shows that, relative to conventional upgrading technologies (i.e., membrane separation and pressure swing adsorption), the catalytic methanation reaction (CMR) at water resource recovery facilities doubles RNG output. When consuming lowcarbon hydrogen, the CMR reduces operational energy use and global warming potential. Techno-economic analysis indicates that the CMR is not yet competitive but will become viable if hydrogen reaches $1/kg. Heat integration and hydrogen cost are key drivers of overall performance.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Mixed polyester recycling can enable a circular plastic economy with environmental benefits

The mixed and varied nature of fossil-based and bio-based plastic waste requires complex and costly separations to enable compatibility with recycling technologies. A circular plastic economy based on mixed polyesters through cleaving ester bonds to produce monomers, while re-utilizing bio-based monomers to produce high-quality sustainable plastics, charts an exciting solution. However, the feasibility of such a circular economy solution remains underexplored. Here, in this study, we conducted a techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment of three polyester depolymerization recycling processes-methanolysis, glycolysis, and acid hydrolysis-for a mixed feedstock (polyethylene terephthalate [PET], polylactic acid [PLA], and polybutylene adipate terephthalate [PBAT]). Methanolysis outperforms glycolysis and hydrolysis economically and environmentally due to more efficient downstream separations, generating products with a 31% decrease in selling price and 21%-46% reduction in acidification, carcinogenic toxicity, fossil-fuel depletion, global warming potential, particulate formation, and smog formation compared to conventional polyester manufacturing. This study highlights the viability of a circular plastic economy for mixed polyesters via a single chemical recycling process.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Supplementing biofuel mandates with a carbon mitigation policy can lead to water quality co-benefits

Biofuel mandates can impact the environment in multiple ways that may be positive or negative, including affecting life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by displacing fossil fuels, affecting soil carbon stocks due to accompanying land use change, and water quality due to changes in fertilizer requirements and the mix of crops used as feedstocks. To achieve desired environmental outcomes in the presence of a biofuel mandate, additional policy instruments must be adopted to supplement the mandate. We develop an integrated and spatially explicit ecosystem-economic modeling framework to analyze the cost-effectiveness of alternative policies to achieve desired targets for GHG emissions reduction from the agricultural and fuel sectors in the USA and nitrate leaching reduction in the Gulf of Mexico below the levels that would be achieved by a corn ethanol and/or a cellulosic ethanol mandate in the USA. We find that while a corn ethanol mandate lowers GHG emissions, it increases nitrate leaching due to the expansion of corn production; a cellulosic ethanol mandate lowers both GHG emissions and nitrate leaching relative to a corn ethanol mandate, but the additional carbon and nitrate prices are needed to achieve anticipated GHG reduction and nitrate reduction targets. We also find that accompanying a biofuel mandate with a GHG reduction target alone leads to substantial nitrate reduction co-benefits, but a nitrate reduction target alone is less effective in reducing GHG emissions. Combining a GHG standard with a nitrate standard can achieve GHG and nitrate reduction targets at lower carbon and nitrate prices as compared to implementing each of these policies independently. Furthermore, our findings show that disregarding policy co-benefits can overestimate the GHG and nitrate prices needed to achieve policy targets and higher policy costs.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Integrating an Industrial Source and Commercial Algae Farm with Innovative CO 2 Transfer Membrane and Improved Strain Technologies

This report describes the overall findings of the research project “Integrating an Industrial Source and Commercial Algae Farm with Innovative CO 2 Transfer Membrane and Improved Strain Technologies”. The motivation and goal for this project were to increase the carbon utilization efficiency (CUE) and areal productivity for algal cultivations, thereby reducing CO 2 costs to cultivation operations and improving economics. This was achieved through a combination of enhanced delivery of inorganic carbon and improved strains of Nannochloropsis oceanica capable of higher rates of bicarbonate uptake and metabolism. The project succeeded in these goals. First, a bubble-free, membrane-based technology was developed for delivering CO 2 to cultivations, which increased the CUE from the 15-20% that is standard in the industry to more than 65%. In addition, N. oceanica was modified to express a bicarbonate transporter protein, BicA, which enabled the cells to grow more quickly. In addition, advances were made in the protein engineering of carbonic anhydrase (CA) for enhanced stability and catalytic performance, the computational fluid dynamics modeling of algal cultivation systems, and in the life-cycle assessment and technoeconomic analysis of algal production. Together, these outcomes contribute to advancing algal cultivation as an economically viable platform for production of fuels, materials, and other chemical products. The project results aid in addressing the dual challenges of reducing atmospheric CO 2 levels and achieving green energy solutions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Ammonium Looping with Membrane Absorber and Distributed Stripper for Enhanced Algae Growth

The objective of this project is to conduct a comprehensive investigation to develop and demonstrate a practical, reliable, and cost-effective integrated carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture and biofixation process for algae production. This process utilizes a chemical hindered ammonium solution (NH 4 OH) as both a capture reagent and an algae nutrient. The membrane absorber employed in the system ensured minimal ammonia (NH 3 ) emissions in the treated flue gas. Additionally, distributed solar-energy powered strippers located near the bioreactor modules facilitate solvent regeneration and enable just-in-time delivery of CO 2 and NH 3 to the algae, thereby minimizing the pH swing for enhanced productivity. The proposed membrane CO 2 absorber and solar-powered stripper is designed and seamlessly integrated with the existing 0.1 MWth bench-scale CO 2 capture system (CCS) and open raceway ponds (ORPs) at the University of Kentucky Center for Applied Energy (UK CAER) campus. The entire integrated process has undergone construction, operation, testing, and analysis. Furthermore, technology has been evaluated with a techno-economic analysis (TEA), technology gap analysis (TGA), life-cycle analysis (LCA), and a technology maturation plan (TMP). This project was performed within two budget periods, 54 months in duration. There are fourteen Project Tasks, twelve Milestones and four Success Criteria.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Geologic hydrogen: From natural occurrences to anthropogenic generation – A review of fundamentals, potential, challenges and prospects

Growing demand for hydrogen is exposing the environmental and economic limits of reforming-based and carbon-managed supply chains, while the scale-up of electrolytic capacity remains capital-constrained. Geologic hydrogen, defined as molecular H₂ generated and stored within the Earth's crust offers a complementary, potentially lower-cost resource, yet exploration is still ad hoc. This review (1) revisits a global inventory of confirmed hydrogen seeps and subsurface occurrences; (2) analyzes the controlling reactions, migration pathways, and trapping conditions governing these occurrences; (3) proposes a process-based geologic hydrogen system concept analogous to, yet distinct from, the petroleum system; and (4) evaluates potential geologic hydrogen systems within the United States as a representative case study. Here, we contrast natural systems powered by serpentinization, mantle degassing or radiolysis with anthropogenic systems that stimulate the same reactions or convert in-situ hydrocarbons. Stable hydrogen accumulations require generation rates that outpace combined physical, chemical and microbial losses; the Bourakébougou field (Mali) exemplifies a self-recharging, free-gas reservoir sustained by meteoric-water serpentinization beneath an efficient caprock. Prospective geologic hydrogen resources are likely to occur in regions where iron-rich lithologies, deep-seated faults, and low-permeability sealing formations coexist. Applying this principle, we highlight three promising hydrogen play types in U.S. geological terrains: ophiolite belts (Appalachian and Californian regions), the Midcontinent Rift and the Lake Superior banded‑iron formations. Multiphysics numerical models and positive-unlabeled machine-learning workflows help to accelerate play screening and de-risk future production; yet, reaction kinetics, stimulation strategies, and full techno-economic and life-cycle assessments remain pivotal knowledge gaps.

Anthropogenic hydrogen generation↗
DOE OSTI2026

Combined Nitrogen and Phosphorous Recovery via Electrochemical Technology Integration into Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

This project developed electroN-P, an electrochemical technology for recovering nitrogen and phosphorus as a fertilizer product from anaerobic digester centrate, targeting an advancement from TRL 4 to 6. The reactor was scaled 220× from a 250 mL batch cell to a continuous 4-channel system treating 55 L of wastewater, recovering >80% of phosphorus. Energy consumption under constant-voltage operation was lower than the embedded energy of conventional fertilizers, while constant-current operation produced a cost-competitive product with a smaller reactor footprint. TEA and LCA outcomes were highly sensitive to the magnesium source; alternative magnesium salt configurations projected reduced costs and embedded energy compared to sacrificial rods, but at the expense of significantly longer operation times. The recovered fertilizer performed comparably to diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate in soil and plant trials. Integrating the technology into a whole-plant model reduced aeration energy by nearly 50%, lowering the levelized cost of water treatment from $0.668/m 3 to $0.648/m 3 . Results support targeting commercialization at smaller (≤1 MGD) facilities with high-strength digester streams. Further investigation into the transport and corrosion kinetics governing sacrificial anode wear is recommended to support continuous, longer-term operation.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2026

Techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment for the catalytic hydrogenolysis and hydrocracking of polyethylene

Catalytic hydrogenolysis and hydrocracking are promising technologies for the conversion of polyolefin waste into hydrocarbons. Here, to explore the economic and environmental viability of these approaches, we conducted techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment of polyethylene hydrogenolysis and hydrocracking processes that produce fuel-range products or olefins, respectively. Relative to primary production, the minimum selling price (MSP) of alkanes for linear-chain naphtha was estimated to be 1.8-fold higher, whereas branched-chain naphtha and propylene were shown to be cost competitive. Environmental impacts showed similar trends across scenarios, with propylene production by hydrocracking exhibiting greenhouse gas emissions comparable with conventional propylene due to relatively low hydrogen demand and high yield. Together, these results suggest that innovations in catalysis and reaction engineering will be required to make viable products that are scale matched with today's plastics, such as light olefins for closed-loop recycling.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Comparative assessment of new oxygen carrier materials for gas switching reforming of natural gas: Techno-economics assessment, life cycle analysis, and experimental insights

The increasing demand for hydrogen and the CO 2 intensity of natural gas (NG) reforming motivate the development of low-carbon-emission hydrogen production technologies. Gas Switching Reforming (GSR) with integrated CO 2 capture, a technology based on Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR), has been experimentally proven and shows potential for scale-up. In this study, select oxygen carriers (OC) (NiO/Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 -CeO 2 /Al 2 O 3 , and magnetite) were tested in methane steam reforming in a fixed bed reactor to determine their relative reactivities under relevant conditions for GSR (800 °C, 7 bar total pressure). Process models were then developed to perform techno-economic analysis (TEA) of GSR for hydrogen production (GSR-H 2 ) and a combined cycle (GSR-CC) in which high-purity H 2 is fired in a gas turbine to produce electricity. Operating at 10 bar and 1100 °C and with the additional recovery steps implemented increased H 2 production by ∼ 30% and improved efficiency relative to prior studies. For GSR-H 2 , the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is 1.61–1.64 $/kg-H 2 , competitive with a reference SMR case, though operating and maintenance costs are higher due to increased electricity demand. GSR-CC has a significantly higher levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) than its reference NGCC (natural gas combined cycle) plant, suggesting it is less competitive; however, increasing production scale could make it more attractive. Life-cycle results for GSR-H 2 indicate NG consumption drives ∼ 75% of total global warming impacts (∼2.3 kg CO 2 eq/kg H 2 ). An environmental, health, and safety screening suggests iron-based carriers are comparatively safer, whereas NiO may pose greater risks. Overall, GSR-H 2 is a scalable, competitive option for hydrogen production using nickel and non-nickel OC.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Preliminary Techno-Economic Assessment of Gas Switching Reforming (GSR) of Natural Gas for Pure Hydrogen Production and Power Generation with Integrated CO2 Capture

The increasing demand for hydrogen and the CO2 intensity of natural gas (NG) reforming motivate the development of low-carbon-emission hydrogen production technologies. Gas Switching Reforming (GSR) is an advanced auto-thermal reforming technology that produces hydrogen or syngas from natural gas. It integrates inherent CO2 capture by utilizing a specialized oxygen carrier in a single fluidized bed reactor, eliminating the need for complex, energy-intensive post-combustion separation. GSR technology builds upon Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR), an experimentally proven technology with strong potential for scaling up. In this study, select oxygen carriers (OC) (NiO/Al2O3, Fe2O3-CeO2/Al2O3, and magnetite) were tested in methane steam reforming in a fixed bed reactor to determine their relative reactivities under relevant conditions for GSR (800 °C, 7 bar total pressure). Process models were then developed to perform techno-economic analysis (TEA) of GSR for hydrogen production (GSR-H₂) and a combined cycle (GSR-CC) in which high-purity H₂ is fired in a gas turbine to produce electricity. Operating at 10 bar and 1100 °C and with the additional recovery steps implemented increased H₂ production by ~30% and improved efficiency relative to prior studies. For GSR-H₂, the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is 1.61–1.64 $/kg-H₂, competitive with a reference SMR case, though operating and maintenance costs are higher due to increased electricity demand. GSR-CC has a significantly higher levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) than its reference NGCC (natural gas combined cycle) plant, suggesting it is less competitive; however, increasing production scale could make it more attractive. Life-cycle results for GSR-H2 indicate NG consumption drives ~75% of total global warming impacts (~2.3 kg CO2 eq/kg H2). An environmental, health, and safety screening suggests iron-based carriers are comparatively safer, whereas NiO may pose greater risks. Overall, GSR-H2 is a scalable, competitive option for hydrogen production using nickel and non-nickel OC.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Environmental Evaluation of Gas Switching Reforming for Low Carbon Hydrogen: A Power-to-X Study

Gas Switching Reforming for hydrogen production (GSR-H2) offers a promising pathway for producing low-carbon hydrogen at scale, with significant implications for Power-to-X (PtX) systems that rely on clean hydrogen as a feedstock for synthetic fuels and chemicals. GSR-H2 integrates inherent carbon capture and thermal self-sufficiency, positioning it as an efficient alternative to conventional steam methane reforming (SMR), proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis, and chemical looping reforming (CLR). Unlike SMR, GSR-H2 avoids external natural gas combustion by leveraging exothermic redox cycles to generate process steam and recover electricity internally. Its innovative reactor design consolidates all reforming stages within a single reactor cluster, eliminating the need for solid circulation found in CLR, thereby reducing capital costs and improving system reliability and scalability. This presentation describes the first environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of GSR-H2, evaluating its environmental performance across U.S. grid and renewable energy scenarios. In a renewables-powered configuration, GSR-H2 achieves a global warming potential (GWP) of 2.77 kg CO2 equivalent per kg H2, substantially lower than SMR (10.4 kg) and competitive with PEM electrolysis (1.85 kg) and CLR (1.84 kg). Results across additional impact categories, including air quality and water use, support GSR-H2’s role as a complementary hydrogen source in PtX applications. Its reduced environmental burden, thermal integration, and simplified scale-up potential make GSR-H2 a viable contributor to net-zero PtX systems, particularly where renewable energy is abundant and electricity-intensive hydrogen production faces economic or infrastructure constraints.

03 NATURAL GAS↗