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NASA NTRS2017

Plant Growth Optimization by Vegetable Production System in HI-SEAS Analog Habitat

The Vegetable Production System (Veggie) is a scientific payload designed to support plant growth for food production under microgravity conditions. The configuration of Veggie consists of an LED lighting system with modular rooting pillows designed to contain substrate media and time-release fertilizer. The pillows were designed to be watered passively using capillary principles but have typically been watered manually by the astronauts in low-Earth orbit (LEO). The design of Veggie allows cabin air to be drawn through the plant enclosure for thermal and humidity control and for supplying CO2 to the plants. Since its delivery to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2014, Veggie has undergone several experimental trials by various crews. Ground unit testing of Veggie was conducted during an 8-month Mars analog study in a semi-contained environment of a simulated habitat located at approximately 8,200 feet (2,500 m) elevation on the Mauna Loa volcano on the Island of Hawaii. The Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation (HI-SEAS) offered conditions (habitat, mission, communications, etc.) intended to simulate a planetary exploration mission. This paper provides data and analyses to show the prospect for optimized use of the current Veggie design for human habitats. Lessons learned during the study may provide opportunities for updating the system design and operational parameters for current Veggie experiments being conducted onboard the ISS and for payloads on future deep space missions.

Ehrlich, Joshua W.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Supercritical CO2 sterilization of N95 Masks

A preliminary investigation of the use of supercritical carbon dioxide for treating of 3M 1860 N95 masks was undertaken to evaluate a potential route to low-cost, scalable, sterilization of personal protective equipment for multiple reuse in hospital settings. Upon entering the supercritical regime, the normally distinct liquid and gaseous phases of CO 2 merge into a single homogeneous phase that has density, short-range order, and solvation capacity of a liquid, but the volume-filling and permeation properties that of a gas. This enables supercritical CO2 to function as a vehicle for delivery of biocidal agents such peracetic acid into microporous structures. The potentially adverse effect of a liquid-to-gas phase transition on mask filter media is avoided by conducting cleaning operations above 31 C, the critical temperature for carbon dioxide. A sample of fifteen 3M 1860 N95 masks was subjected to ten consecutive cycles of supercritical CO 2 cleaning to determine its effect on mask performance. These 15 masks, along with 5 control samples then underwent a battery of standardized tests at the CDC NIOSH NPPTL research facility in Pittsburgh, PA. The data from these tests strongly suggest (but do not prove) that supercritical carbon dioxide do not damage 3M 1860 N95 masks. Additional tests conducted during this project confirmed the compatibility of supercritical CO 2 with ventilator tubing that, like N95 masks, has been in short supply during portions of the COVID-19 pandemic and cannot be sterilized by conventional means. Finally, a control experiment was also conducted to examine the effect of supercritical CO 2 on a BSL-2 surrogate virus, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), Indiana serotype strain. In the absence of biocidal additives, supercritical CO 2 exhibited no measurable lethality against VSV. This surrogate virus experiment suggests that a biocidal additive such as peracetic acid will be necessary to achieve required sterilization metrics.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1992

Portable life support system regenerative carbon dioxide and water vapor removal by metal oxide absorbents preprototype hardware development and testing

NASA-Johnson has acquired a preprototype/full-scale metal oxide CO2 and humidity remover (MOCHR), together with its regeneration module. Tests conducted prior to delivery by the MOCHR's manufacturer have demonstrated the concurrent removal of H2O and CO2 at rates, and under conditions, that are applicable to EVA Portable Life Support Systems.

Hart, Joan M.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Future Food Production System Development Pulling from Space Biology Crop Growth Testing in Veggie

Preliminary crop testing using Veggie indicates the environmental conditions provided by the ISS are generally suitable for food crop production. When plant samples were returned to Earth for analysis, their levels of nutrients were comparable to Earth-grown ground controls. Veggie-grown produce food safety microbiology analysis indicated that space-grown crops are safe to consume. Produce sanitizing wipes were used on-orbit to further reduce risk of foodborne illness. Validation growth tests indicated abiotic challenges of insufficient or excess fluid delivery, potentially reduced air flow leading to excess water, elevated CO2 leading to physiological responses, and microorganisms that became opportunistic pathogens. As NASA works to develop future space food production, several areas of research to define these systems pull from the Veggie technology validation tests. Research into effective, reusable water delivery and water recovery methods for future food production systems arises from abiotic challenges observed. Additionally, impacts of elevated CO2 and refinement of fertilizer and light recipes for crops needs to be assessed. Biotic pulls include methods or technologies to effectively sanitize produce with few consumables and low inputs; work to understand the phytomicrobiome and potentially use it to protect crops or enhance growth; selection of crops with high harvest index and desirable flavors for supplemental nutrition; crops that provide psychosocial benefits, and custom space crop development. Planning for future food production in a deep space gateway or a deep space transit vehicle requires methods of handling and storing seeds, and ensuring space seeds are free of contaminants and long-lived. Space food production systems may require mechanization and autonomous operation, with preliminary testing initiated to identify operations and capabilities that are candidates for automation. Food production design is also pulling from Veggie logistics lessons, as we learn about growing at different scales and move toward developing systems that require less launch mass. Veggie will be used as a test bed for novel food production technologies. Veggie is a relatively simple precursor food production system but the knowledge gained from space biology validation tests in Veggie will have far reaching repercussions on future exploration food production.

Veggie↗

NASA NTRS2017

Future Food Production System Development Pulling From Space Biology Crop Growth Testing in Veggie

Plants↗

NASA NTRS2018

New Crop Selection

For extended space flight, reliable food supplies are a necessity. Most of the food products consumed by astronauts today are stored for flight via freeze drying. Fresh food is needed to supplement known national deficiencies in the stored food diet (Cooper et al.). This is so because stored foods can lose nutritional value. Fresh food is the answer to the nutritional demands of space flight. Kennedy Space Center's Utilization and Life Sciences Office (UB-A), under the Exploration Research and Technology Program (UB), conducts research on plant growth and development under International Space Station (ISS) conditions. UB-A analyzes the growth responses of leafy greens in microgravity and through the manipulation of environmental conditions (CO2 levels, light intensity, relative humidity, and water delivery). By manipulating growing conditions researchers can optimize food production using minimal/restricted resources. The New Crop Selection experiments are testing the suitability of leafy crops to ISS conditions. Results from this study showed that 'Dragoon' Lettuce and 'Red Russian' Kale have the largest fresh mass.

Bhuiyan, Ruqayah H.↗

NASA NTRS2005

Evaluation of Cryofreezer Technology through Simulation and Testing (DRAFT)

A cryofreezer system is being evaluated as a new method of compressing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2) in an Advanced Life Support (ALS) Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS). A cryocooler is used to provide cold temperatures and heat removal while CO2 freezes and accumulates around a coldtip. The CO2 can then be stored as a liquid or high-pressure gas after it has been accumulated. This system was originally conceived as an In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) application for collecting CO2 from the Mars atmosphere to be converted to methane fuel with a Sabatier reaction. In the ALS application, this system could collect CO2 from the International Space Station (ISS) Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) for delivery to the Sabatier reactor. The Sabatier reaction is an important part of proposed Air Revitalization System (ARS) for ALS, and technology sharing is often possible between ISRU and ARS applications in CO2 processing systems. A prototype system developed and initially tested by Lockheed Martin Astronautics is now being evaluated in the Air Revitalization Technology Evaluation Facility (ARTEF) at NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC). This paper will discuss testing conducted through December 2004 to examine the performance and capacity of the system under a variety of input conditions. A simulation of the system was developed simultaneously using the Aspen Custom Modeler (ACM) software package. Several approaches using varying levels of detail could be used when modeling the system, and this paper will discuss the assumptions and choices made in this simulation, as well as the validity of the simulation for predicting performance of the prototype unit.

Anderson, Molly↗

DOE OSTI2020

Comparing energy and water use of aqueous and gas-based metalworking fluids

Gas-based metalworking fluids (MWFs) have been proposed as alternative coolants and lubricants in machining operations to mitigate concerns surrounding water use and pollution, industrial hygiene, occupational health, and performance limitations associated with water-based (aqueous) MWFs that are ubiquitously used in the metals manufacturing industry. This study compares the primary energy and water use associated with the consumptive use, delivery, and disposal of aqueous MWFs with three gas-based MWFs in the literature-minimum quantity lubricant-in-compressed air (MQL), liquid/gaseous N-2, and liquid/supercritical CO2. The comparison accounts for reported differences in machining performance in peer-reviewed experimental studies across several machining processes and materials. The analysis shows that despite the reported improvement in tool life with N-2 and CO2-based MWFs, the electricity- and water-intensive separation and purification processes for N-2 and CO2 lead to their higher primary energy and water use per volume of material machined relative to water-based MWFs. Although MQL is found to have lower primary energy use, significant consumptive water use associated with the vegetable oil commonly used with this MWF leads to higher overall water use than aqueous MWF, which is operated in a recirculative system. Gas-based MWFs thus shift the water use upstream of the manufacturing plant. Primary energy and water use of gas-based MWFs could be reduced by focusing on achieving higher material removal rates and throughput compared to aqueous MWF instead of solely targeting improvements in tool life. Additionally, the consumptive use of CO2 and N-2 MWFs could be minimized by optimizing their flow rates and delivery to precisely meet the cooling and lubrication needs of specific machining processes instead of flooding the tool and workpiece with these gases. This article met the requirements for a gold-gold JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

cutting fluids↗

NASA NTRS1989

Continuous hydroponic wheat production using a recirculating system

Continuous crop production, where plants of various ages are growing simultaneously in a single recirculating nutrient solution, is a possible alternative to batch production in a Controlled Ecological Life Support System. A study was conducted at John F. Kennedy Space Center where 8 trays (0.24 sq m per tray) of Triticum aestivum L. Yecora Rojo were grown simultaneously in a growth chamber at 23 C, 65 percent relative humidity, 1000 ppm CO2, continuous light, with a continuous flow, thin film nutrient delivery system. The same modified Hoagland nutrient solution was recirculated through the plant trays from an 80 L reservoir throughout the study. It was maintained by periodic addition of water and nutrients based on chemical analyses of the solution. The study was conducted for 216 days, during which 24 trays of wheat were consecutively planted (one every 9 days), 16 of which were grown to maturity and harvested. The remaining 8 trays were harvested on day 216. Grain yields averaged 520 g m(exp -2), and had an average edible biomass of 32 percent. Consecutive yields were unaffected by nutrient solution age. It was concluded that continual wheat production will work in this system over an extended period of time. Certain micronutrient deficiencies and toxicities posed problems and must be addressed in future continuous production systems.

Mackowiak, C. L.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Electrostatic Charging of Polymers by Particle Impact at Low Pressures

Studies of the electrostatic interaction between micrometer-sized particles and polymer surfaces are of great interest to NASA's planetary exploration program. The unmanned landing missions to Mars planned for this decade as well as the possible manned missions that might take place during the second decade of this century require a better understanding of the electrostatic response of the materials used in landing crafts and equipment when exposed to wind-blown dust or to surface dust and sand particles. We report on preliminary experiments designed to measure the electrostatic charge developed on five polymer surfaces as they are impacted simultaneously by Mars simulant particles less than 5 micrometers in diameter moving at 20 m/s. Experiments were performed in a CO2 atmosphere at 10 mbars of pressure using a particle delivery method that propels the particles with contact. Experiments were also performed in dry air at atmospheric pressures using a pressurized particle delivery system. The five polymer surfaces, commonly used in space applications, were chosen so that they span the triboelectric series.

Calle, Carlos I.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Labor Contractions Enhance Oxygenation and Behavioral Activity of Newborn Rat Pups

Labor contractions help instigate behavioral responses at birth (viz., breathing and suckling) that are vital for the newborn's adaptation to the extrauterine world (Ronca et al., 1996). In the present study, we analyzed the role of labor contractions in postpartum oxygenation and behavioral activity of newborn rat pups. Newborns were observed following either vaginal (V) or cesarean delivery. For cesarean delivery, day 21 pregnant dams' were administered a spinal transaction to eliminate lower body sensation, a laparotomy was performed and the uterus was maintained in a heated (37.5 C) bath. Four rat fetuses in one of the dams' paired uterine horn were compressed (C) to Simulate labor contractions (20 sec/min for 10 min) while four fetuses in the opposite horn were not compressed (NC). Fetuses were surgically removed from the uterus, stroked with a soft brush to mimic postnatal licking by the dam, the umbilical cord occluded. Pups were exposed to room temperature (22 C) for one hr, then nest temperature (33 C) for one hr. PO2, CO2, and O2, saturation were determined at 0, 30, 60, or 120 min post delivery using a blood gas analyzer. V and C delivered neonates showed comparable rates of PO2, CO2 and O2 saturation whereas NC neonates showed depressed levels at all time points (p<0.05). Respiratory rates of V, C and NC neonates increased significantly (p<0.05) over the first two postpartum hrs and did not differ across groups. Postpartum behavioral activity was significantly greater in V and C conditions and positively correlated with postnatal oxygenation. These findings provide further evidence for importance of labor contractions in early postpartum adaptation.

Mills, N. A.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Evaluating the economic impacts of using enzymatic membranes to optimize bicarbonate production and delivery to open raceway ponds

Gas sparging is the most commonly used method for delivering CO2 to algal cultures in Open Raceway Ponds (ORPs). While this method is well-tested and effective, these systems experience large amounts of outgassing to the surrounding atmosphere and often achieve carbon utilization efficiencies (CUE) lower than 30%. With such large losses, system are overdesigned to provide CO2 gas in extreme excess, resulting in increased capital and operational expenses. This research is focused on the development, testing, and implementation of a hydrogel membrane seeded with the enzyme carbonic anhydrase and designed to convert gaseous CO2 into aqueous bicarbonate and deliver this inorganic carbon (iC) directly to the algae pond. Despite increased capital expenses for the module, bicarbonate storage tank, and added pumps and infrastructure, preliminary results suggest that the membrane module has the potential to reduce the minimum biomass selling price by 35% by significantly reducing the operational expenditure for CO2.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Spatiotemporal Adaptive Passive Direct Air Capture

Carbon Collect Inc., along with Arizona State University, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), PM Group, and Trimeric Corporation, completed an initial design of a commercial-scale, passive direct air capture (DAC) system termed “carbon trees” that will capture, separate, and store at least 100,000 tonnes/year of carbon dioxide (CO2) from air (net basis). Passive DAC is unique among DAC technologies in that passive air delivery by wind avoids the energy penalty of forced convection. Carbon Collect Inc.’s sorbent-agnostic approach offers the flexibility to choose sorbents for a wide range of climates. A combination of steam, low-grade heat, and vacuum releases the CO2 from the sorbent, which is extracted from the chamber and purified and compressed for geological storage. A commercial carbon tree forest combines the output of several thousand trees for compression and purification with high heat and energy integration. The project team prepared an initial engineering design package for each of three geographically diverse host sites throughout the United States to better understand the effect of local/regional ambient conditions on DAC system performance and project costs. A techno-economic analysis, life cycle analysis, business case analysis, and an environmental, health, and safety risks assessment were also completed for each of the three geographically diverse host sites.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2026

Adapted Cell Design for the Operando X‑Ray Absorption Study of a Structurally Evolving Cu Nanoparticle Ensemble during the CO2 Electroconversion to Multicarbon Products

An improved understanding of the materials that will sustain the future of energy production, storage, and delivery calls for better characterization tools. Operando characterization methods have thus become essential for investigating electrocatalytic materials. Without their resulting insights, the study of highly performing catalysts post-mortem cannot viably facilitate the further development of functional catalysts. Herein, we present an operando electrochemical cell designed for hard X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and specifically adapted to the study of an electrocatalytically active Cu nanoparticle ensemble. So far, this nanocatalyst has proven to pose quite a challenge to characterize due to its unique structural dynamics. Adopting a design comparable to the H-cell employed for all activity testing, we report the satisfactory translation of the active site formation into an XAS-compatible cell. The simultaneous collection of CO2-derived products during XAS characterization enabled the operando characterization of this CO2-reducing active structure. We report a Cu–Cu coordination number of the first scattering path higher than suggested in our previous studies, highlighting the importance of monitoring metastable nanoelectrocatalysts in operando. This study illustrates important caveats for the electrocatalysis community when considering the application of operando XAS. Our results highlight that the sample size, homogeneity, and stability determine how to interpret the measured signal. Considering these parameters carefully, the operando EXAFS results confirm the exceptional undercoordinated character of the Cu nanoparticle ensemble during CO2 reduction to C2+ products.

Louisia, Sheena↗

DOE OSTI2026

Upgrading Biogas through in situ Conversion of Carbon Dioxide to Biomethane in Anaerobic Digesters

Organic waste streams generated by wastewater treatment plants, agricultural operations, and food processing industries represent an important yet underutilized opportunity for renewable energy production in the United States. Through anaerobic digestion, these waste streams can produce biogas, a mixture primarily composed of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), that can be upgraded to pipeline-quality natural gas. However, most existing upgrading technologies remove CO2 from biogas rather than utilizing it, leaving a significant portion of the potential energy unused. This project investigates a novel biological upgrading approach that converts CO2 into additional CH4 by supplying hydrogen (H2) to specialized microorganisms capable of performing hydrogenotrophic methanation. The main challenges associated with biological biogas upgrading are related to hydrogen supply, gas-liquid mass transfer, and process stability. First, due to the high cost of hydrogen gas, it is preferable that H2 be produced on-site using renewable energy sources such as wind or solar power. Second, hydrogen has low solubility in liquids, which limits its availability to microorganisms and requires strategies to improve gas dissolution and transfer within the reactor. Third, process inhibition may occur as a result of increased pH caused by CO2 consumption or elevated H2 partial pressure, both of which can negatively affect methanogenic activity. Although research in these areas has advanced during the course of this project, these challenges have not yet been fully resolved. To date, the biological systems that have achieved the highest methane concentrations are typically ex-situ reactors, where operational conditions can be more easily controlled. For this reason, the findings of the present project remain highly relevant. The project goal was to develop an innovative system that can accomplish biogas upgrading via biological conversion of CO2 to CH4, in a novel hybrid approach that combines the advantages of both in-situ and ex-situ systems. The proposed system employs a three-phase upflow anaerobic bioreactor with H2 delivery through a gas-permeable membrane, enabling efficient hydrogen transfer and microbial conversion. Under optimized operating conditions, the system achieved 99% H2 consumption and 90% CO2 conversion. A subsequent gas cleaning stage was implemented to further improve gas quality and meet target purity standards. The upgraded gas composition reached 97.7% CH4, 2.2% CO2, and 0.97% O2, while H2S concentrations remained below detection limits. In addition, a flue gas-driven inorganic thermoelectric generator (TEG) system was designed and experimentally validated as a potential source of electricity for H2 production. The system consisted of six TEG modules connected in series and achieved an open-circuit voltage of 4.5 V and a maximum power output of 224 mW at a temperature difference of approximately 53.5 °C, demonstrating effective conversion of waste heat into electrical power under simulated flue gas conditions. Finally, a comprehensive techno-economic analysis was completed to evaluate the capital and operating costs associated with the proposed system. The results provide important insights to guide future scale-up, optimization, and potential deployment of integrated biological biogas upgrading technologies.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Demonstration of A Long Duration Crop in the Advanced Plant Habitat Engineering Demonstration Unit: Key Factors to Consider Prior to Testing and Lessons Learned

The Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) is a fully enclosed, closed-loop, plant growth facility currently deployed on the International Space Station (ISS). It is equipped with complete environmental control (i.e.spectral qualityandlight intensity, temperature, relative humidity, and CO2),root module which containsa growth substrate(typically arcillite) and a porous tube based automated water delivery system. Two APH units, one ground unitidentical to the on-orbit versionand an Engineering Development Unit (EDU; a high fidelity test version), currently reside at Kennedy Space Center. Prior to conducting tests on-orbit, these APH ground units areutilized to conductbothScience Verification Tests(SVT; primarilyinthe EDU) and Experiment Verification Tests (EVT; primarily in the Ground Unit). In February 2020, a 122 day experiment was concluded in the APH EDU where four 'Numex Española Improved' pepper plants (Capsicum annuum) were successfully grown from seed to harvestyieldingover 50 fruit, demonstrating the capabilityand versatilityof this APH EDU system to support plant growth for long life cycle flowering/fruiting plants.

L. E. Spencer↗

DOE OSTI2026

Design and demonstration of a direct air capture system with moisture-driven CO 2 delivery into aqueous medium

Two direct air capture (DAC) systems were designed and demonstrated to passively capture CO 2 from ambient air and use moisture to release the CO2 into an alkaline medium. A bench-scale system delivering ∼1 g CO 2 d –1 was demonstrated in a laminar flow hood, and a small pilot-scale system that could deliver ∼100 g CO 2 d –1 was operated outdoors in a 4.2 m 2 raceway pond. Novel elongated mesh-tube packets containing anion-exchange resin (AER) beads were found to reduce drying and CO 2 loading time 4.3-fold compared to larger mesh bags. Technoeconomic analysis (TEA) estimates the cost of capturing CO 2 into an alkaline solution, suitable for cultivating photosynthetic microorganisms, to be $\$229$ per tonne for a practical scenario based on current results and $\$72$ per tonne for an aspirational scenario considering improvements to sorbent capacity, hydrophobicity, and sorbent lifetime. TEA further estimates an additional $\$110$ per tonne to extract CO 2 from solution, purify it, and compress it to 15 MPa, suitable for sequestration. Furthermore, moisture-driven processes have the potential to use up to 87% less energy than thermal and/or vacuum swing DAC by using energy from water evaporation.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

NASA NTRS2008

The Orbiting Carbon Observatory: NASA's First Dedicated Carbon Dioxide Mission

The Orbiting Carbon Observatory is scheduled for launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California in January 2009. This Earth System Science Pathfinder (ESSP) mission carries and points a single instrument that incorporates 3 high-resolution grating spectrometers designed to measure the absorption of reflected sunlight by near-infrared carbon dioxide (CO2) and molecular oxygen bands. These spectra will be analyzed to retrieve estimates of the column-averaged CO2 dry air mole fraction, X(sub CO2). Pre-flight qualification and calibration tests completed in early 2008 indicate that the instrument will provide high quality X(sub CO2) data. The instrument was integrated into the spacecraft, and the completed Observatory was qualified and tested during the spring and summer of 2008, in preparation for delivery to the launch site in the fall of this year. The Observatory will initially be launched into a 635 km altitude, near-polar orbit. The on-board propulsion system will then raise the orbit to 705 km and insert OCO into the Earth Observing System Afternoon Constellation (A-Train). The first routine science observations are expected about 45 days after launch. Calibrated spectral radiances will be archived starting about 6 months later. An exploratory X(sub CO2) product will be validated and then archived starting about 3 months after that.

Carbon Cycle↗