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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 343 records · Page 19
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Drivers of stability and transience in composition-functioning links during serial propagation of litter-decomposing microbial communities

ABSTRACT Biotic factors that influence the temporal stability of microbial community functioning are an emerging research focus for the control of natural and engineered systems. The discovery of common features within community ensembles that differ in functional stability over time is a starting point to explore biotic factors. We serially propagated a suite of soil microbial communities through five generations of 28-day microcosm incubations to examine microbial community compositional and functional stability during plant litter decomposition. Using dissolved organic carbon (DOC) abundance as a target function, we hypothesized that microbial diversity, compositional stability, and associated changes in interactions would explain the relative stability of the ecosystem function between generations. Communities with initially high DOC abundance tended to converge towards a “low DOC” phenotype within two generations, but across all microcosms, functional stability between generations was highly variable. By splitting communities into two cohorts based on their relative DOC functional stability, we found that compositional shifts, diversity, and interaction network complexity were associated with the stability of DOC abundance between generations. Further, our results showed that legacy effects were important in determining compositional and functional outcomes, and we identified taxa associated with high DOC abundance. In the context of litter decomposition, achieving functionally stable communities is required to utilize soil microbiomes to increase DOC abundance and long-term terrestrial DOC sequestration as one solution to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Identifying factors that stabilize function for a community of interest may improve the success of microbiome engineering applications. IMPORTANCE Microbial community functioning can be highly dynamic over time. Identifying and understanding biotic factors that control functional stability is of significant interest for natural and engineered communities alike. Using plant litter–decomposing communities as a model system, this study examined the stability of ecosystem function over time following repeated community transfers. By identifying microbial community features that are associated with stable ecosystem functions, microbial communities can be manipulated in ways that promote the consistency and reliability of the desired function, improving outcomes and increasing the utility of microorganisms.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Directed self-assembly of block copolymers for high-precision patterning in the era of extreme ultraviolet lithography

Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography enables unprecedented resolution in semiconductor patterning but faces critical challenges in developing resist materials that achieve high-precision at economically viable throughput. Directed self-assembly (DSA) of block copolymers (BCPs) offers a promising solution for pattern rectification by leveraging thermodynamically determined domain structures to decouple BCP pattern quality from the imperfect original lithographic pattern. This prospective presents an overview of recent progress on the EUV + DSA strategy, covering advances in BCP material design, processing, metrology, and pattern transfer. We highlight recent advances in high-χ BCPs with perpendicular orientation and domain spacings compatible with EUV dimensions, leveraging A-b-(B-r-C) architectures. We also discuss progress in chemical pre-pattern fabrication using both positive- and negative tone resists, along with processing strategies to minimize defects and roughness based on BCP thermodynamics and assembly kinetics. We further examine metrology platforms for characterizing the thermodynamics of BCP materials and quantifying the size and shape of BCP domains. Lastly, we review pattern transfer strategies for generating functional inorganic masks suitable for semiconductor manufacturing. Together, these advances highlight the potential of DSA to complement EUV lithography, offering a pathway to address critical challenges in achieving high-precision patterning for the semiconductor industry.

Lee, Kyunghyeon [Univ. of Chicago, IL (United Stat↗
DOE OSTI2020

3D CFD Model Validation Using Benchmark Data of 1/16th Scaled VHTR Upper Plenum and Development of Wall Heat-Transfer Correlation For Laminar Flow

With support from the U.S. Department of Energy-Office of Nuclear Energy’s (DOE-NE’s) Nuclear Energy Advanced Modeling and Simulation (NEAMS) program, an effort has been pursued to support high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) technology development and its modeling and simulation needs. There is a particular need for advanced modeling and simulation tools to predict thermal-fluid behavior in the nuclear reactor primary system, especially in the core and the lower and upper plena, during safety-related transients. In this report, two main such activities are presented relevant to the HTGRs: (1) three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) validation using benchmark data from the upper plenum of Texas A&M University’s 1/16th scaled very-high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR), and (2) development of wall heat-transfer correlation for laminar flow in a wall-heated pipe. The CFD tool validation exercises can be helpful to choose the models and CFD tools to simulate and design specific components of the HTRGs such as upper plenum where jet mixing is a complex phenomenon. In a loss of forced circulation event, the laminar flow can be observed during the development of natural circulation flow. This work includes the development and validation of heat transfer correlations for laminar flow using the Nek5000 CFD code due to limited available experimental data for laminar flow conditions to guide low-order models (1D). In this report, the flow characteristics of a single isothermal jet discharging into the upper plenum was investigated using the Nek5000 Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) CFD tool. Several numerical simulations were performed for various jet-discharged Reynolds numbers ranging from 3,413 to 12,819. A grid-independent study was performed. The numerical results of mean velocity, root-mean-square fluctuating velocity, and Reynolds stress were compared against the benchmark data. Good agreement was obtained between simulated and measured data for axial mean velocities, except near the upper plenum hemisphere. The maximum predicted errors for axial mean velocities at various normalized coolant channel diameter heights of 1, 5, and 10 are 1.56%, 1.88%, and 3.82%, respectively. In addition, the predicted root-mean-square fluctuating velocity and Reynolds stress are qualitatively in agreement with the experimental data. The Nek5000 code was used to develop wall-heat transfer correlation for laminar flow in a cylindrical tube. Several simulations were performed for various Reynolds flow and wall-heat fluxes. A new heat transfer correlation was developed using data from Nek5000 simulation results and regression functions in Matlab. The developed heat transfer correlation is valid for various Reynolds flows from 200 to 2000. The predicted R² value for model fit was 0.875, which ensures that 87.5% of the model data lies on the Nek5000 data. Moreover, a machine learning (ML) tool was used to train and test the Nek5000 data. A good fit of the ML-based model was observed with the test data.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Quantifying Thermal Output of Energetic Materials (LDRD Final Report)

We present the results of an LDRD project, funded by the Nuclear Deterrence IA, to develop capabilities for quantitative assessment of pyrotechnic thermal output. The thermal battery igniter is used as an exemplar system. Experimental methodologies for thermal output evaluation are demonstrated here, which can help designers and engineers better specify pyrotechnic components , provide thermal output guidelines for new formulations, and generate new metrics for assessing component performance and margin given a known failure condition. A heat-transfer analysis confirms that the dominant mode of energy transfer from the pyrotechnic output plume to the heat pellet is conduction via deposition of hot titanium particles. A simple lumped-parameter model of titanium particle heat transfer and a detailed multi-phase model of deposition heat transfer are discussed. Pyrotechnic function, as defined by "go/no-go" standoff testing of a heat pellet, is correlated with experimentally measured igniter plume temperature, titanium metal particle temperature, and energy deposition. Three high-speed thermal diagnostics were developed for this task. A three-color imaging pyrometer, acquiring 100k images per second on three color channels, is deployed for measurement of titanium particle temperatures. Complimentary measurements of the overall igniter plume emission ("color") temperature were conducted using a transmission-grating spectrograph in line-imaging mode. Heat flux and energy deposition to a cold wall at the heat-pellet location were estimated using an eroding thermocouple probe, with a frequency response of ~5 kHz. Ultimate "go/no-go" function in the igniter/heat-pellet system was correlated with quantitative thermal metrics, in particular surface energy deposition and plume color temperature. Titanium metal-particle and plume color temperatures both experience an upper bound approximated by the 3245-K boiling point of TiO 2 . Average metal-particle temperatures remained nearly constant for all standoff distances at T = 2850 K, ± 300 K, while plume color temperature and heat flux decay with standoff—suggesting that heat-pellet failure results from a drop in metal-particle flux and not particle temperature. At 50% likelihood of heat-pellet failure, peak time-resolved plume color temperatures drop well below TiO 2 boiling to ~2000 - 2200 K, near the TiO 2 melting point. Estimates of peak heat flux decline from up to 1 GW/m 2 for near-field standoffs to below 320 MW/m 2 at 50% failure likelihood.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Magnetic Properties of Cables with Meandering Wires through a Multipole-based Cable Braid Electromagnetic Penetration Model

In this paper, we employ our first principles multipole-based cable braid electromagnetic penetration model to evaluate the transfer inductance of cables exhibiting meandering wires. We concentrate on a cable structure with two wires, and consider the dependence on the transfer inductance as a function of braid angle and amplitude of the meandering. We compare the results from the first principles model to analytical estimations, confirming the accuracy and correctness of our model. In turn, this makes the multipole-based model readily available for the modeling of realistic cable geometries by accounting for the full dependence on the actual cable geometry.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Data Files for P. Mai et al., "Fluctuating charge-density-wave correlations in the three-band Hubbard model" (2024)

The high-temperature superconducting cuprates host unidirectional spin- and charge-density-wave orders that can intertwine with superconductivity in nontrivial ways. While the charge components of these stripes have now been observed in nearly all cuprate families, their detailed evolution with doping varies across different materials and at high and low temperatures. We address this problem using nonperturbative determinant quantum Monte Carlo calculations for the three-band Hubbard model. Using an efficient implementation, we can resolve the model’s fluctuating spin and charge modulations and map their evolution as a function of the charge transfer energy and doping. We find that the incommensurability of the charge modulations is decoupled from the spin modulations and decreases with hole doping, consistent with experimental measurements at high temperatures. These findings support the proposal that the high-temperature charge correlations are distinct from the intertwined stripe order observed at low-temperature and in the single-band Hubbard model.

cuprates↗
DOE OSTI2020

Biases in genome reconstruction from metagenomic data

Background Advances in sequencing, assembly, and assortment of contigs into species-specific bins has enabled the reconstruction of genomes from metagenomic data (MAGs). Though a powerful technique, it is difficult to determine whether assembly and binning techniques are accurate when applied to environmental metagenomes due to a lack of complete reference genome sequences against which to check the resulting MAGs. Methods We compared MAGs derived from an enrichment culture containing ~20 organisms to complete genome sequences of 10 organisms isolated from the enrichment culture. Factors commonly considered in binning software—nucleotide composition and sequence repetitiveness—were calculated for both the correctly binned and not-binned regions. This direct comparison revealed biases in sequence characteristics and gene content in the not-binned regions. Additionally, the composition of three public data sets representing MAGs reconstructed from the Tara Oceans metagenomic data was compared to a set of representative genomes available through NCBI RefSeq to verify that the biases identified were observable in more complex data sets and using three contemporary binning software packages. Results Repeat sequences were frequently not binned in the genome reconstruction processes, as were sequence regions with variant nucleotide composition. Genes encoded on the not-binned regions were strongly biased towards ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, mobile element functions and genes of unknown function. Our results support genome reconstruction as a robust process and suggest that reconstructions determined to be >90% complete are likely to effectively represent organismal function; however, population-level genotypic heterogeneity in natural populations, such as uneven distribution of plasmids, can lead to incorrect inferences.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Delocalized Excitation Transfer in Open Quantum Systems with Long-Range Interactions

The interplay between coherence and system-environment interactions is at the basis of a wide range of phenomena, from quantum information processing to charge and energy transfer in molecular systems, biomolecules, and photochemical materials. In this work, we use a Frenkel exciton model with long-range interacting qubits coupled to a damped collective bosonic mode to investigate vibrationally assisted transfer processes in donor-acceptor systems featuring internal substructures analogous to light-harvesting complexes. We find that certain delocalized excitonic states maximize the transfer rate and that the entanglement is preserved during the dissipative transfer over a wide range of parameters. We investigate the reduction in transfer caused by static disorder, white noise, and finite temperature and study how transfer efficiency scales as a function of the number of dimerized monomers and the component number of each monomer, finding which excitonic states lead to optimal transfer. Finally, we provide a realistic experimental setting to realize this model in analog trapped-ion quantum simulators. Analog quantum simulation of systems comprising many and increasingly complex monomers could offer valuable insights into the design of light-harvesting materials, particularly in the nonperturbative intermediate parameter regime examined in this study, where classical simulation methods are resource intensive.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2021

Measurement of Differential Neutral Current Elastic $ν_μ$-Argon Scattering Cross Sections with MicroBooNE

The MicroBooNE experiment is an 85 ton active mass liquid-argon time projection chamber located in the Fermilab Booster Neutrino Beamline. MicroBooNE’s ability to detect low-energy protons allows us to study single proton events with momenta as low as 300 MeV/c. We present a measurement of the flux-averaged neutral-current elastic differential cross section for neutrinos scattering on argon as functions of four-momentum transfer squared, Q 2 , proton kinetic energy, momentum and angle with respect to the beam direction. Our measured cross section as a function of Q 2 goes as low Q 2 = 0.10 GeV2 . This is our first step towards extracting the strange quark contribution to the axial form factor, which is not only the least-constrained contribution to the neutral-current elastic scattering cross section but is also crucial for understanding the strange quark contribution to the proton spin.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Low barrier height in a ZnO nanorods/NbSe 2 heterostructure prepared by van der Waals epitaxy

Two-dimensional (2D) materials as contacts for semiconductor devices have attracted much attention due to minimizing Fermi level pinning. Schottky–Mott physics has been widely employed to design 2D material-based electrodes and to elucidate their contact behavior. In this study, we revealed that charge transfer across a 2D/semiconductor heterointerface and materials characteristics besides work function should be accounted for in fabrication of electrodes based on 2D materials. Our density functional theory (DFT) calculations predicted that charge transfer between ZnO and NbSe 2 lowers the barrier height at the heterojunction and that conductive surface states of ZnO provide an additional conduction channel in the ZnO/NbSe 2 heterostructures. Crystalline ZnO/NbSe 2 heterostructures were prepared by the hydrothermal method. Electrical characterizations of the ZnO/NbSe 2 heterostructures showed Ohmic-like behavior as predicted by the DFT calculations, opposed to the prediction based on the Schottky–Mott model.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2023

Density functional based methods for light harvesting molecules

The goal of the proposal was to computationally study the photoinduced charge transfer excited states of organic molecules. The systems of interest are the large organic supramolecules that have potential for photovoltaic applications. The simulation of the charge transfer excited states in large supramolecular assemblies require quantum mechanical methods that can be applied to systems with hundreds of atoms. Through this project we have implemented a perturbative delta-self-consistent field method that can easily describe the charge transfer excited states with regular density functionals without range separation. The cost of the calculations of an excited state is similar to that of the ground state. The method also allows for calculation of the energy gradients of the excited state. The developed method was applied to study a number of different supramolecular systems containing hundreds of atoms with excellent agreement with experiment. The absorption characteristics and the influence of density functional approximations were also examined. These led to several studies on the variety of organic electron donor and acceptor molecules. Apart from these developments through this project we also improved the code capabilities by implementing new meta-GGA functionals. This was a major step since the code is purely density functional and earlier the functional capabilities were limited only to generalized gradient approximations. A total of 23 peer-reviewed publications in top chemical physics journals resulted from this grant.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

On Performance Prediction of Big Data Transfer in High-performance Networks

Big data generated by large-scale scientific and industrial applications need to be transferred between different geographical locations for remote storage, processing, and analysis. High-speed dedicated connections provisioned in High-performance Networks (HPNs) are increasingly utilized to carry out such big data transfer. HPN management highly relies on an important capability of performance (mainly throughput) prediction to reserve sufficient bandwidth and meanwhile avoid over-provisioning that may result in unnecessary resource waste. This capability is critical to improving the resource (mainly bandwidth) utilization of dedicated connections and meeting various user requests for data transfer. Conventional methods conduct performance prediction by fitting prior observed transfer history with predefined loss functions, without considering unobservable latent factors such as competing loads on end hosts. Such latent factors also have a significant impact on the application-level data transfer performance, which may result in an inaccurate prediction model. In this paper, we first investigate the impact of latent factors and propose a clustering-based method to eliminate their negative impact on performance prediction. We then develop a robust machine learning-based performance predictor by: i) incorporating the proposed latent factor elimination method into data preprocessing, and ii) adopting a customized domain guided loss function. Extensive experimental results show that our predictor achieves significantly higher prediction accuracy than several other state-of-the-art methods.

Liu, Wuji↗
DOE OSTI2026

Nuclear–Electronic Orbital General Rate Theory: Predicting Hydrogen Kinetic Isotope Effects in the Deep Tunneling Regime

Hydrogen transfer is a critical component of many chemical and biological processes. The ratio of rate constants for hydrogen and deuterium transfer defines the H/D kinetic isotope effect (KIE), which is a powerful tool for elucidating hydrogen transfer mechanisms. Interpretation of experimental H/D KIEs relies on accurate and affordable computational methods. However, due to their light mass, hydrogen and deuterium can undergo tunneling, which is challenging to describe in multidimensional molecular systems. Herein, we introduce the nuclear–electronic orbital general rate theory (NEO-GRT), which enables the efficient prediction of H/D KIEs based on full-dimensional molecular quantum chemistry calculations. The NEO-GRT approach describes the hydrogen transfer rate constant with a general expression that spans the vibrationally adiabatic and nonadiabatic hydrogen tunneling regimes. The input quantities are computed using NEO density functional theory, which treats the transferring hydrogen or deuterium nucleus quantum mechanically on the same level as the electrons. We investigate two intramolecular proton transfer reactions in organic molecules at temperatures down to 50 K to evaluate the performance of NEO-GRT by comparison to transition state theory and ring-polymer instanton theory. The KIEs computed with NEO-GRT agree with those calculated using ring-polymer instanton theory for the full-dimensional molecular systems at the same level of electronic structure theory. This agreement indicates that NEO-GRT captures the deep hydrogen tunneling effects, in contrast to transition state theory, which neglects such effects. Given its relatively low computational cost, NEO-GRT is a promising approach for predicting H/D KIEs in large organic and organometallic systems.

Hydrogen↗
DOE OSTI2023

Coherent Phonon-Induced Modulation of Charge Transfer in 2D Hybrid Perovskites

Electron–phonon interactions play an essential role in charge transport and transfer processes in semiconductors. For most structures, tailoring electron–phonon interactions for specific functionality remains elusive. Here, it is shown that, in hybrid perovskites, coherent phonon modes can be used to manipulate charge transfer. In the 2D double perovskite, (AE2T) 2 AgBiI 8 (AE2T: 5,5“-diylbis(amino-ethyl)-(2,2”-(2)thiophene)), the valence band maximum derived from the [Ag 0.5 Bi 0.5 I4] 2– framework lies in close proximity to the AE2T-derived HOMO level, thereby forming a type-II heterostructure. During transient absorption spectroscopy, pulsed excitation creates sustained coherent phonon modes, which periodically modulate the associated electronic levels. Thus, the energy offset at the organic–inorganic interface also oscillates periodically, providing a unique opportunity for modulation of interfacial charge transfer. Density-functional theory corroborates the mechanism and identifies specific phonon modes as likely drivers of the coherent charge transfer. These observations are a striking example of how electron–phonon interactions can be used to manipulate fundamentally important charge and energy transfer processes in hybrid perovskites.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Embedding Thiols into Choline Phosphate Polymer Zwitterions

Abstract The compositional scope of polymer zwitterions has grown significantly in recent years and now offers designer synthetic materials that are broadly applicable across numerous areas, including supracolloidal structures, electronic materials interfaces, and macromolecular therapeutics. Among recent developments in polymer zwitterion syntheses are those that allow insertion of reactive functionality directly into the zwitterionic moiety, yielding new monomer and polymer structures that hold potential for maximizing the impact of zwitterions on the macromolecular materials chemistry field. This manuscript describes the preparation of zwitterionic choline phosphate (CP) methacrylates containing either aromatic or aliphatic thiols embedded directly into the zwitterionic moiety. The polymerization of these functional CP methacrylates by reversible addition‐fragmentation chain‐transfer methodology yields polymeric zwitterionic thiols containing protected thiol functionality in the zwitterionic units. After polymerization, the protected thiols are liberated to yield thiol‐rich polymer zwitterions which serve as precursors to subsequent reactions that produce polymer networks as well as polymer‐protein bioconjugates.

Polymer Science↗
DOE OSTI2022

Efficient Pd on carbon catalyst for ammonium formate dehydrogenation: Effect of surface oxygen functional groups

Formate solution is one of a kind promising liquid organic hydrogen carrier but suffers from kinetic challenges. This study investigates the kinetics of the surfacefunctionalized Pd on carbon catalysts for formate dehydrogenation and the impact of O-functional groups. Here, the fraction of the distinguished O-functional groups was modulated by the different concentrated HNO 3 solutions treatment or by H 2 reduction. This study shows that the O-functional groups play critical roles in dispersing Pd nanoparticles and decreasing the activation energy for dehydrogenation. Density functional theory (DFT) calculation reveals that most O-functional groups enhance formate adsorption on the Pd active site. However, the existence of C=O groups consumes reducing agents and hinders the formation of metallic Pd. The electron transfer from Pd to oxygen functional groups is unfavorable to dehydrogenation. The as-prepared Pd5/re-ACA (reduced activated carbon washed by acid) exhibited significant activity with a higher turnover frequency of 13,511 h -1 than commercial Pd/C.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

A Package of Momentum and Heat Transfer Coefficients for the Stable Surface Layer Extended by New Coefficients over Sea Ice

The bulk transfer coefficients of momentum, heat, and humidity belong to the main ingredients of numerical weather prediction and climate models. They are needed for the calculation of turbulent fluxes in the surface layer and often rely on the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory requiring universal stability functions. The problem of a derivation of transfer coefficients based on different stability functions has been considered by many researchers over the years but it remains to this day. In this work, dedicated to the memory of S.S. Zilitinkevich, we also address this task, and obtain transfer coefficients from three pairs of theoretically derived stability functions suggested by Zilitinkevich and co-authors for stable conditions. Additionally, we construct non-iterative parametrizations of these transfer coefficients based on earlier work. Results are compared with state-of-the-art coefficients for land, ocean, and sea ice. The combined parametrizations form a package in a universal framework relying on a semi-analytical solution of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory equations. A comparison with data of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean campaign (SHEBA) over sea ice reveals large differences between the coefficients for land conditions and the measurements over sea ice. However, two schemes of Zilitinkevich and co-authors show, after slight modification, good agreement with SHEBA although they had not been especially developed for sea ice. One pair of the modified transfer coefficients is superior and is compatible to earlier SHEBA-based parametrizations. Finally, an algorithm for practical use of all transfer coefficients in climate models is given.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dual-function lignin monomers enable high-performance graphene electrodes via interface confinement and proton transfer enhancement

Graphene oxide (GO)-based energy storage faces dual bottlenecks: unsustainable reduction methods and sluggish proton transfer kinetics. Here, we introduce a groundbreaking green strategy using lignin-derived vanillyl alcohol (VA) as a dual-function monomer to simultaneously address these challenges. By thermally annealing GO/VA films at mild temperatures (<100 °C), VA triggers an interface-confined reduction of GO while self-polymerizing into redox-active oligomers (P-VA) that intercalate between graphene layers. This dual role-reducing agent and proton highway enables a 3D conductive network with minimized graphene restacking, abundant redox sites, and rapid H + transport pathways. Density Functional Theory (DFT) reveals how P-VA optimizes proton dynamics, while the resulting rGO-P-VA4-T90 electrode achieves a record volumetric capacitance of 311.1F/cm 3 (777.8F/cm 2 ) and retains 87.8 % capacity after 10,000 cycles. Flexible solid-state supercapacitors deliver 94.2 μWh/cm 2 energy density at 63.8 μW/cm 2 , rivaling state-of-the-art devices. Furthermore, this work redefines sustainable graphene engineering, merging biomass valorization with high-performance energy storage in a scalable, eco-friendly paradigm.

Graphene oxide reduction↗