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At least 343 records · Page 19
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Investigation of the Effect of Chrome and Nickel Concentrations During Two-Piston Splat Quenching of Austenitic Stainless Steels

For solidification rates at or near equilibrium solidification conditions the effects of chrome (Cr) and nickel (Ni) on stainless steel solidification modes and microstructures are well detailed. However, fusion-based additive manufacturing (FBAM) processes that rely on faster, more rapid solidification rates call for a more in-depth understanding of the effects of rapid solidification on the solidification behavior and how these change with variations in alloy composition. Eleven custom stainless steel (SS) alloys with unique compositions based on 316L were made using targeted alloying element additions to generate feedstock with Cr/Ni eq ratios ranging from 0.9 to 2.1. Two-piston splat quenching (SQ) was used to produce rapid solidification conditions similar to those achieved in powder bed fusion processes in a fraction of the time and cost of traditional methods. Employing heat transfer simulations, SEM, TEM, and STEM characterization techniques, the SQ process was found to consistently produce solidification rates estimated to be between ~ 0.4 and 1.6 m/s. Five unique solidification microstructures were identified within the rapidly solidified SQ samples (primary austenite, massively transformed ferrite to austenite, primary austenite and massively transformed ferrite to austenite, primary ferrite, and primary ferrite and massively transformed ferrite to austenite). Both the primary ferrite solidification mode and primary ferrite phase were found to form at lower Cr/Ni eq values than previously predicted. SQ samples with compositions that were within the compositional specifications for 316L SS, an alloy which is commonly used in FBAM processes, demonstrated a wider range of potential solidification modes and microstructures that could form at rapid solidification rates than expected. Finally, by using SQ as a means to simulate rapid solidification conditions similar to those observed in FBAM processes, potential new alloy compositions can be screened faster and more cost effectively than purchasing and running test batches of the metallic powder.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Fluid Dynamics Effects on Microstructure Prediction in Single Laser Tracks for Additive Manufacturing

The Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing (LPBFAM) is one of the most important processes for the production of lightweight, cost-effective, complex, and high-performance enduse parts. At present, the cost and time associated with LPBFAM process development is very high due to a lack of fundamental process understanding. In this project, a multi-physics model was developed on a highly parallel open-source code, Truchas, with the ultimate goal of providing experimentally validated process maps for tailoring microstructure to achieve desired performance for LPBFAM. As a critical step towards fully LPBFAM modeling, modeling of single-track laser fusion (STLF) were conducted. Multi-physics simulations were conducted using Truchas for STLF by considering heat transfer, phase-change, fluid dynamics, surface tension phenomena, and evaporation. In order to assess the effect of the fluid dynamics on the solidification and ensuing microstructure, a heat transfer-and-solidification-only (HTS) model and a fully coupled heat-transfer-solidification and fluid-dynamics (HTS-FD) model were considered. In the HTS_FD model, the fluid flow was considered to be laminar while the molten alloy surface is assumed to be flat and non-deformable. This study is one the first attempt to understand the effect of the fluid flow on microstructure in STLF and LPBFAM. The results show that the fluid flow affects the solidification and ensuing microstructure in STLF. In order to validate Truchas for STLF and LPBFAM modeling, experimental data, which was obtained at GE Global Research (GEGR) for liquid pool shape and microstructure, were compared with those from numerical simulation results. For the keyhole regime case, numerical simulation results indicate that the melt-pool shape was typical to that of the conduction case with very large deviations from the measured melt-pool depths. Two sensitivity studies were conducted by varying the evaporation flux and the surface tension coefficient at fixed laser absorptivities of 0.5 and 0.3, respectively. The minimum value for the overall combined error, between the calculated values with the HTS_FD model and measured values for both the width and height of the melt-pool, was attained for a surface tension coefficient of -0.75e-4 N/m. An analytical solidification model for the columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET) in rapid solidification was used to assess the microstructure variation within the melt-pool. From numerical simulation results, thermal gradient, G, and solidification velocity, V, were obtained in order to predict the microstructure type (e.g., dendritic, cellular). For the fluid-flow HTS_FD model, G was found to exhibit a maximum at the extremity of the solidified pool (i.e., at the free surface). By contrast, for HTS simulations, G was found to exhibit a maximum around the entire edge of the solidified pool. For the HTS_FD simulations, the minimum values of the cooling rate, GV, were found to be approximately half than their corresponding values for HTS simulations. By contrast with the min GV values, the maximum values for GV were found to occur for the HTS_FD simulations. Thus, HTS_FD simulations were found to exhibit a wider range of cooling rates than the HTS simulations. Concerning the solidification maps, the variation of the solidification velocity, V, as function of the thermal gradient, G, was obtained. It was found that the fluid flow model results (HTS_FD) exhibited an increased spread in the V(G) variation within the melt pool with respect to the HTS model results (without the fluid flow). A preliminary correlation model for the primary dendrite arm spacing (PDAS) based on a power law dependence on thermal gradient and solidification velocity was used to estimate PDAS from HTS and HTS_FD simulations. For low laser powers and low laser speeds, the PDAS obtained 6 with the fluid dynamics model (HTS_FD) was larger by more than 30% with respect to the PDAS calculated with the simple HTS model. In the second part of the project, fifty-seven simulations were conducted in order to obtain data on microstructure variables that can be used for process map development. In order to cover the entire processing space, thirty-three cases were selected STLF process simulations at six power levels and six laser scanning speeds. The 57 STLF process simulations were conducted as follows: 33 simulations with the heat-transfer-only (HTS) model and 24 simulations with the fluid flow model (HTS_FD). The solidification map data shows that for all simulations, a columnar dendritic microstructure would be expected. It was found that the minimum, average, and maximum thermal gradient exhibit exponential variations with respect to a process variable defined as the ratio between the power and square root of scan speed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Laser weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless steel: Part I - Impurity effects and solidifcation mode

For laser welded type 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn (21-6-9) stainless steels, the relationship between solidification cracking susceptibility and chemical composition was examined, and primary solidification mode (PSM) diagrams were developed to predict solidification mode. Sigmajig testing was used with experimental heats of type 21-6-9 to determine the effect of P and S on solidification cracking w hen primary austenite solidification occurred. Phosphorus showed a larger influence on solidification cracking relative to S, and a relationship of (P+0.2S ) was found for total impurity content. PSM diagrams to predict solidification mode were developed by analyzing welds made at three travel speeds for a wide range of 21-6-9 alloys and some other similar alloys. The minimum Cr eq /Ni eq required for primary ferrite solidification increased as travel speed increased, with more alloys showing primary austenite solidification at higher travel rates. Furthermore, as travel speed increased from 21 to 85 mm/s, the average solidification rate increased from 6 to 25 mm/s.

21-6-9, Nitronic 40, laser welding↗
DOE OSTI2016

Laser weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless steel: Part II - Weldability diagrams

In this second part of the study, weldability diagrams developed to relate solidification crack susceptibility and chemical composition for laser welded type 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn (21-6-9) stainless steel are presented. Sigmajig testing on 14 commercial 21-6-9 alloys, 20 experimental 21-6-9 alloys, and 7 other high-N, high-Mn austenitic stainless steels was used to develop weldability diagrams for solidification crack susceptibility for laser welding of type 21-6-9. Three travel speeds were used to show the changes in minimum Cr eq /Ni eq for primary ferrite solidification as solidification rate increase d with travel speed . Primary austenite solidification was observed below 1.55 Cr eq /Ni eq (Espy equivalents) at 21 mm/s travel speed. At 42 mm/s travel speed , a mix of solidification modes were displayed for alloys from 1.55-1.75 Cr eq /Ni eq . Primary ferrite solidification was observed above 1.75 Cr eq /Ni eq at both 42 and 85 mm/s travel speeds. No solidification cracking was observed for alloys with primary ferrite solidification. Lastly, variable cracking behavior was found in alloys with primary austenite solidification, but in general cracking was observed in alloys with greater than 0.02 wt-% combined impurity content according to (P+0.2S).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Roll Compaction of Powdered Radioactive Wastes - 18251

Most of low- and intermediate-level radioactive wastes must be solidified by a proper binding matrix and disposed at the centralized disposal site. So it is desirable to achieve a high loading of radwastes in a drum to reduce the disposal fee while meeting both the national regulations and the waste acceptance criteria of the disposal site. In general, the radioactive wastes (liquid, dried powder and sludge) were solidified by mixing with a proper binding matrix (cement, polymer, asphalt, etc.), but their solidified volume inevitably increases due to the limitation of incorporating of radwaste into a binding matrix. To solve this problem, some Korean NPPs operate both a CTS (Concentrate Treatment System, evaporation and granulation) and a polymer solidification system. The size distribution of granulated wastes produced by CTS is so broad (diameter; several μm ∼ several cm) that a polymer cannot impregnate the void space between particles due to their small size. However, if the powdered radwaste can be compacted into high density pellets, and the pellets can be loaded in a drum with maximum waste loading, then the binding matrix can fill the void between pellets, it might be more desirable to keep the size distribution of pellets constant to reduce the solidified waste volume. This compaction methodology can greatly reduce the disposal fee due to the reduction of the solidified waste volume, and can facilitate polymer solidification due to the constant size of the radwaste pellets. This methodology is also applicable to solidify powdered wastes such a depleted uranium used as a catalyst, ash and sludge. Loading radwaste compacted with bentonite pellets versus particles into a container serves, as an engineered or natural barrier in a deep geologic disposal system. Roll compaction is a typical agglomeration process for dry powders and depends on the device parameters and the material properties. This study, firstly, was focused on the design of roll compactor (briquetting machine), the shape and size of pellet, and secondly the loading method of pellets into a drum, their solidification in polymer, and evaluating the overall volume reduction. We used bentonite (particle size; 85 ∼ 100 μm) as a material to be compacted instead of radwaste powders (concentrates and depleted uranium wastes) without the addition of agglomeration agents. In the design of roll, we considered the diameter (200 mm) and width (41 mm) of roll, two types of pocket shapes (< 9 mm, 0.275 ml), and the surface of the pocket. Fig. 2 shows two pellet shapes, tetragonal and circular. The pressure of roll compactor, one of the main process variables, is > 320 kg f/cm{sup 2}, and the roll gap is 0.5 mm. The powders are compacted in a compaction zone between two counter-rotating rolls according to the complicated mechanisms. As a result of the state and the apparent density of the pellets obtained by changing the pressure from 0 to 286 kg f/cm{sup 2}, the pellets were unstable at pressure=0, but above 148 kg f/cm{sup 2} the pellets were more stable, and the apparent density of the pellets was 2.63 g/cm{sup 3} at 148 kg f/cm{sup 3}, and 2.68 g/cm{sup 3} at 286 kg f/cm{sup 2}. The roller speed (rpm) can determine the capacity (kg/h) of a compactor, and depends on both the compaction pressure and the feeding rate. By increasing the roll speed from 2 to 4 rpm, the apparent density of pellets was decreased gradually from 2.74 g/cm{sup 3} to 1.45 g/cm{sup 3}. We designed the special feeding system in order to feed powders uniformly to the roll gripping zone and to supply powders into the narrowest part of the roll gap. At a constant roll speed (3 rpm) and a constant compaction pressure (286 kg f/cm{sup 2}), the apparent density of the pellets was linearly proportional to the feeding rate from 2.18 to 2.74 g/cm{sup 3} by changing the feeding rate of powders from 8 to 12 rpm. In the polymer solidification of the obtained pellets, we used epoxy resin as a solidification agent, and showed their solidified waste forms in Fig. 5. The incorporation ratio (wt.%) of powders/polymer was about 71.7/28.3 in tetragonal pellets, 71.9/28.1 in circular pellets. We calculated the volume reduction in an aspect of powders itself and the solidified waste form. In powder case, through the comparison of the apparent density of the obtained pellets (2.74 g/cm{sup 3}) and raw powders (0.93 g/cm{sup 3}), the volume reduction was calculated as about 2.74/0.93 = 2.95 times. This means that powders can be compacted to 1/2.95 times. And in waste form case, the weight ratio of powder/polymer in a mixing method (workable) and a compaction method is about 0.42, 2.56, individually. Therefore the volume reduction was calculated as about 2.56/0.42 = 6.01 times. We found a compaction methodology for the volume reduction of powdered radioactive wastes, and their polymer solidification will be more effective to reduce the volume of radwastes to be disposed. After a characterization of the solidified waste form incorporated pellets (including sintered pellets), this methodology will be applied to treat depleted uranium wastes used as catalyst, and to solve the problem of NPPs' polymer solidification system, as mentioned above. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2025

Unravelling Microstructure Selection in an Additively Manufactured Eutectic High‐Entropy Alloy

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are promising candidates for advanced structural applications due to their excellent mechanical properties. Additive manufacturing (AM), with its rapid solidification conditions, enables the creation of unique nonequilibrium microstructures. To fully leverage the synergy between AM and HEAs, understanding how processing affects structure and properties is essential. Here, how solidification rate influences microstructure evolution and phase transformation pathway in laser additively manufactured AlCrFe2Ni2 eutectic HEAs is investigated. By increasing the laser scan speed and hence the solidification rate, distinct solidification modes evolving from coupled eutectic to anomalous eutectic and eventually to single-phase solidification are revealed. These transitions result in distinct microstructures and a wide range of mechanical properties. Thermodynamic modeling and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that low cooling rates allow for sufficient atomic diffusion and phase separation, facilitating coupled eutectic growth. In contrast, rapid cooling suppresses diffusion and destabilizes the solid–liquid interface, promoting anomalous or single-phase solidification. This integrated experimental and computational approach provides a multiscale understanding of solidification mechanisms in HEAs and underscores how kinetic effects can over-ride thermodynamic predictions under nonequilibrium conditions. Furthermore, these results demonstrate that AM can serve as a powerful tool to design HEAs with tailored microstructures and properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗