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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Parametric Analysis of Entry Vehicles for Giant Planet Missions

The Planetary Science Decadal Survey has identified Uranus and Saturn as high priori-ty destinations for a flagship and New Frontier missions respectively in the decade 2023-2032. The pro-posed presentation will focus on the entry and descent aspects of the entry vehicles design, considered as part of Giant Planet probe mission concepts, and associated trades for viable trajectory options. Giant Planet Entry Vehicle Parametric Study: Launch vehicle capabilities are evolving and provide an opportunity to increase instrumented probe dimensions. To assess the impact of larger aeroshell designs, a parametric study was conducted to understand the impact on aerothermal environments, TPS options, and TPS mass over a range of 1.0m to 2.0m aeroshell diameters for Uranus and Saturn probe concept missions. The 45° sphere-cone geometry is a legacy configuration that has demonstrated static stability and been used successfully in missions to Venus (Pioneer-Venus) and Jupiter (Galileo). A nose radius of 0.4 m was considered primarily to reduce the heat flux at the stagnation point compared to the smaller radii used in the Venus and Jupiter missions. Representative inertial velocities are chosen from a prior NASA Ames study. Viable entry trajectories to meet concept mission and science objectives were developed using the tool POST2. The newly developed thermal protection material called HEEET (Heatshield for Extreme Entry Environment Technology) was considered in the study. This material, which is at a technology readiness level (TRL) of 6, is highly customizable and available in two varieties: (i) a dual-layer version consisting of recession layer on top of an insulative layer, and (ii) a single-layer version consisting of the insulative layer alone, termed 3- dimensional Mid-Density Carbon Phenolic (3MDCP). Both options were considered for the forward heatshield (the sphere-cone part) in the pre-sent study.

Thermal Protection System↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA's Habitation Development Status: Current Concepts and ISRU Opportunities

Introduction: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is embarking on a bold journey to return humankind to the Moon and onward to Mars with innovative commercial, international, and academic partnerships. Under the Artemis series of missions, NASA seeks to establish sustained human exploration of deep space through an objectives-based approach. This approach drives the identification of needed system functionality and the current and future capabilities which will eventually allow humanity to sustainably live beyond Earth. Providing evolvable and scalable habitation is a cornerstone function that calls for the collection and integration of current, developmental, and future technologies that can meet near-term exploration needs while growing into long-term sustained presence. NASA is advancing in-space habitation through its Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) model while designing lunar, Mars transit, and Mars surface habitat government reference concepts for Artemis missions. These efforts have unveiled possible near-term opportunities for the in-space resource utilization community if human habitation is considered a future customer of space resources. NextSTEP Habitation Development: NASA is closely working with commercial partners under its NextSTEP Appendix A model to advance habitation systems in the arena of inflatable and composite habitation structures. Such efforts promise efficiencies in volumetric packaging and overall spacecraft mass respectively. Recent testing by commercial partners have helped to quantify possible failure mechanisms for inflatable structures while advancing their technology towards eventual flight certification. The advancement of such Class II habitation structures, in which the habitat is only fully deployed once in-space or on a planetary surface, is critical to providing increased habitable volume for long-duration missions with no additional mass penalties. The progression of such technology is infused into NASA’s government reference concepts for notional deep space habitation concepts. Current Government Reference Concepts: To best inform the formulation of future collaborative solicitations, NASA employs the practice of internally developing reference concepts for future exploration elements. These concepts aid in identifying the functions and capabilities needed to complete NASA missions as well as feasible solutions within the timeframe needed. Government reference concepts for a lunar Surface Habitat, Mars Transit Habitat, and Mars Sur-face Habitat are continuously being developed and updated to better guide the Agency’s overall exploration architecture. Lunar Surface Habitat. As NASA returns to the Moon, it is evaluating possible lunar surface habitation concepts. The Surface Habitat (SH) reference concept entails a hybrid metallic-inflatable structure capable of initially housing two crew for surface stays of up to 30 days in duration. While initial missions may span ~7 days in duration, consideration is being given to expanding SH’s capability to support a crew of four for up to 60 days over its 15-year design life. Functionally, the SH serves as a ‘hub’ for all Artemis crewed surface operations, providing internal volume for maintenance, medical, logistics, science utilization, and extravehicular activity (EVA) support in addition to core habitation functionality such as environmental control and life support (ECLS) and power generation and distribution among many others. Additionally, NASA has entered a study agreement with the Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana – ASI) to investigation a possible Multi-Purpose Habitat (MPH) as an additional or augmenting habit-able element for the lunar surface. Mars Transit Habitat. NASA’s current architectural concept for initial human missions to Mars entails the utilization of a transit habitat (TH) to transport a four-person crew to and from Mars orbit, departing from and returning to a lunar near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO), over the course of a ~1,200-day mission. While holding a similar 15-year design lifetime, TH will also support a series of analog mission activities in NRHO to gradually test the systems and interaction with lunar surface elements, some of which may be adapted for Mars surface exploration. Holding similar functional capabilities as SH, TH is sized to support much longer durations in space and greater logistical independence. Mars Surface Habitat. NASA is still exploring the concept of operations for initial crewed missions to Mars. As such, the Mars Surface Habitat (MSH) concept is still in its infancy as options for mobile, pressurized habitation and stationary habitats are being explored. It is expected MSH will leverage heavily from the lunar SH and possible lunar pressurized rover, however the very different Martian environment will likely necessitate modifications. ISRU Opportunities: Despite the advancements under NASA’s NextSTEP habitation work and continually optimized reference concepts, NASA is facing near-term mass and power challenges that may create opportunities to the ISRU community by providing yet another possible customer for space resources. While NASA desires to use regenerative ECLS systems (ECLSS) for all habitation concepts, their operation comes with initial mass penalties and maintenance overheads when compared to simpler open-loop architectures. Because of this, NASA is currently pro-posing an open-loop, consumables-based architecture for its surface habitats to achieve initial launch and delivery lander mass targets while scarring for the in-corporation of regenerative ECLSS to meet longer mission durations and sustained presence. With such an architecture, oxygen and potable water are needed consumables, which initial ISRU systems may be able to provide in a pilot capacity. Although the TH is expecting to utilize regenerative ECLSS, advancements in lunar surface-based ISRU and possible re-supply of spacecraft in lunar or Mars orbit could significantly reduce the logistical need for ECLSS related spares on TH and possibly allow a similar open-loop and consumables-based architecture. In addition to ECLSS mass concerns, the SH is facing challenges with energy storage to support operations over periods of darkness exceeding 100 hours. Both battery and fuel cell-based power architectures are being traded, opening options for external power generation and energy storage. One possibility is ISRU-produced H2 and O2 feeding external primary fuel cell systems which could supplement habitation power generation while reducing initial mass and volume until much more powerful fission power systems might be deployed. Conclusion: Significant advancements are being made in evolvable habitation concepts that span from near-term technologies, such as inflatable structures under NextSTEP, to potentially revolutionary capabilities like the lunar surface construction as funded through the Moon-to-Mars Planetary Autonomous Construction Technologies (MMPACT) project. As NASA investigates both heritage capabilities and rap-idly advancing, disruptive technologies, there are likely many near-term opportunities for initial ISRU capabilities to significantly aid human habitation and increase self-sufficiency beyond Earth.

habitation↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Engineered Yeast to Test Risks for Human Exploration of the Lunar Surface

Jessica W. Chau, Natalie N. Ball, Aditya Hindupur, Sandra T. Vu, Jennifer Gil Acevedo, Lauren C. Liddell, Chinmayee Govinda Raj, Gentry, Sergio R. Santa Maria, A. Mark Settles Crewed exploration of the Moon carries risks of long duration exposure to reduced gravity and to deep space radiation. The Lunar Explorer Instrument for space biology Applications (LEIA) investigates the effects of increased radiation and reduced gravity on yeast viability and growth in a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) surface mission to the south polar region. LEIA conducts yeast genetics experiments to quantify growth, metabolism, and synthetic biology-enabled production of human nutrients, while taking real time measurements of biologically relevant radiation exposure on the lunar surface. We have engineered beta-carotene producing yeast strains to test the importance of selected DNA damage repair and reactive oxygen species (ROS) defense pathways in mitigating cellular damage from lunar surface radiation. Carotenoids are important dietary antioxidants, and beta-carotene is pro-vitamin A, which is needed for vision and immune function. Carotenoids are sensitive to ROS produced by ionizing radiation and NASA is testing on-demand production of carotenoids from yeast in the BioNutrients space flight experiments. In LEIA, we test the effects of deep space on carotenoid yield in engineered yeast strains. The LEIA team uses CRISPR-Cas9 to engineer yeast to express carotenoids as well as to generate loss-of-function mutations. We are generating mutations in the RAD51 DNA damage repair locus and three genes that function to reduce oxidative damage to the cell: SOD1, SOD2, and TSA1. These strains are tested for carotenoid production using microfluidics and LED spectroscopy to allow remote sensing of cellular growth and carotenoid levels. Keywords: synthetic biology, oxidative stress tolerance, biosensors, space radiation, beyond low Earth orbit, lunar surface, CRISPR/Cas9, gene editing, desiccation, carotenoids.

synthetic biology↗
NASA NTRS2023

Potomac River Basin Water Resources: Assessing Water Quality and Quantity in the National Capital Region Using NASA Earth Observations

The Potomac River Basin (PRB) is responsible for providing drinking water to over 5 million residents and plays a significant role in the health of the Chesapeake Bay. Therefore, it is important to understand the relationship between water quality, landcover, and the hydrological cycle within the PRB. The National Park Service (NPS) has monitored 37 streams within the National Park Units in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and Washington, D.C. This project aimed to help the NPS better understand trends in water quality to supplement their ability to monitor changes in the National Capital Region Network (NCRN). Google Earth Engine, ArcGIS Pro, R, and Python were used for data retrieval, visualization, and analysis. Earth observations included Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS imagery. Ancillary data included the USDA Cropland Data Layer, Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station Data (CHIRPS), and soil moisture data from the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) Land Data Assimilation System (FLDAS). We compared Land use/land cover (LULC), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), precipitation and soil moisture data to water quality data provided by the NPS at a watershed level. LULC change maps were also generated for the PRB between 2008 and 2022. We found significant correlations between precipitation, soil moisture, NDVI, and water quality. Correlations were found between certain land use types and water quality metrics, but findings varied greatly between watersheds. These insights emphasize the imperative of strategic watershed management in preserving the integrity of key aquatic systems.

Landsat↗
NASA NTRS2024

Bulk Major and Trace Elemental Composition of an Aggregate Sample From Asteroid Bennu

On September 24, 2023, NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission returned a capsule to Earth carrying material from asteroid Bennu. This event was the first time a U.S. mission delivered pristine samples from an asteroid and is the largest asteroid sample return to date. As these samples represent some of the oldest, most primitive, and pristine materials available to us, and which originate from a known and well-studied asteroid, they allow us a rare opportunity to gain a better understanding of the formation and evolution of our solar system. Key to understanding the material returned from asteroid Bennu is establishing its bulk chemical composition. Previous studies have shown that each chondrite group has a distinct elemental composition. For the carbonaceous chondrites specifically, each group exhibits a distinct pattern of moderately and highly volatile elemental depletions, relative to CI chondrites. CI chondrites are considered the most primitive chondrite group and broadly represent the solar photosphere composition. The two most striking features of these depletion patterns is that the moderately volatile element depletions increase with decreasing 50% condensation temperature and then plateau out at abundances that roughly correlate with matrix abundance. Due to these distinctive patterns, bulk elemental composition has become an important classification tool for establishing the different chondrite groups and the connections between them. As such, determining the bulk chemical composition of the Bennu aggregates will help to test two mission hypothesis: “Bennu’s bulk elemental composition reflects that of its main parent asteroid and is similar to the composition of the Sun, with depletions in moderately to highly volatile elements” and “Bennu’s dominant lithologies are comparable in bulk mineralogy, petrology, and composition to the most aqueously altered carbonaceous chondrites” . Furthermore as the carbonaceous and non-carbonaceous chondrites are thought to have likely formed in the inner and outer protoplanetary disk, respectively (e.g., [8]), determining the bulk chemical compositions of the Bennu aggregates will also help test the major mission hypothesis that “Bennu's parent body formed beyond the snow line by accretion of material in the pro-toplanetary disk” . Regarding chondrite formation, observed elemental patterns have been successfully used to model how the mixing of volatile-rich and volatile-poor chondritic components can produce the observed carbonaceous chondrites groups. They have also been significant in investigating how volatilization processes influenced chondrite formation. As such, establishing bulk chemical compositions of the pristine Bennu samples is vital for understanding the asteroid, and solar system formation. To begin this processes, we analyzed the bulk major and trace elemental compositions of Bennu aggregates.

P Koefoed↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Biosignature Preservation Potential of Sulfate-Rich Rocks From Hogwallow Flats, Jezero Crater, Mars

The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover discovered fine grained sedimentary rocks in the Hogwallow Flats member of the Shenandoah Formation at the ~3.6- to 3.8-billion-year-old Jezero crater, Mars. Mudstones and sandstones at the 3-meter-thick Hogwallow Flats (HWF) outcrop, and a laterally equivalent outcrop known as “Yori Pass”, show extensive evidence of diagenesis (alteration after deposition). Enhanced preservation of organic matter and other biosignatures can occur in early diagenetic environments associated with aqueous alteration in a lake, floodplain or pro-deltaic setting, as envisaged for HWF and Yori Pass [1]. Three drilled rock cores were collected from HWF-type bedrock as part of the Mars Sample Return Program. They are considered to be the samples with the highest potential to preserve organic compounds and biosignatures out of all samples collected so far by Perseverance (as of mission Sol 1000) [2]. This work outlines the implications of diagenesis for biosignature preservation in rock samples for possible return to Earth.

Mars 2020↗
NASA NTRS2024

Iterated Sigma-Point Kalman Filtering for Trajectory Reconstruction

Two second-order Kalman filtering methods are added to the New Statistical Trajec-tory Estimation Program (NewSTEP). The two filters are of the class of Sigma-Point Kalman Filters, namely the Unscented Kalman Filter and the Divided Difference Filter. Both filters are implemented with an iterative measurement update step. Results from simulation test case and a flight data test case are provided to show the filter performance. The results indicate that the new second-order filters pro-duce trajectory estimates with reduced uncertainties when compared to the existing first-order filtering method.

Sophia Vedvik↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Investigation of Hardware and Instrumentation to Measure Hand Grasp Activity with the Spacesuit Gloves

Introduction: During the 2022 suited injury summit, it was hypothesized that there will be concerns for hand and glove injuries for future exploration space missions, especially given the fact that the “total number of Extravehicular activity (EVA) hours and frequency” for lunar surface missions is expected to vastly increase [1]. It has been reported that the hands experienced the greatest “absolute numbers” of reported injuries and far exceeds other injuries during EVA [1, 2]. It was reported that the most fatiguing part of the surface EVA was the repetitive gripping tasks [3]. It was recommended that a “glove sub-team” be created to look at possible injury mechanism and mitigation strategies. Some of the recommendations that were suggested [1] are as follows: examine hand fatigue, utilize motion capture, examine the duration and frequency of hand movements, and identify frequent hand motions. We started assessing hardware and instrumentation to measure hand grasp activity in the pressurized glove environment. The purpose of this test was to perform a hardware evaluation for motion capture (MoCap) gloves obtained from StretchSense (Auckland, New Zealand). The specific gloves used were the Pro Fidelity and SuperSplay to determine the repeatability, reliability, feasibility, and useability inside of a pressurized gloved environment. Methods: The MoCap gloves were customized (e.g., battery/Bluetooth pack relocated to upper arm) to better suit the pressurized testing environment and protect the subject from unintentional injury (Fig. 1). Fourteen total subjects from different demographics (i.e., gender and pressurized glove experience level) participated in this test series. Testing included one session each of a baseline data collection (NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) building 21) and a spacesuit glove box (Fig. 2 at JSC building 7 room 2027) data collection (under vacuum down to 4.3 psid), where each session lasted 3-5 hours. Controlled and reproducible tasks to systematically evaluate the repeatability and reliability of the hardware were performed during baseline data collection. Additionally, subjects performed simulated EVA-like tasks in a pressurized gloved environment. For all sessions, MoCap gloves were placed on each of the subjects’ hands and the signal from it, or the raw capacitance (Fig. 3), was analysed. The raw capacitance was used to estimate the open and closed hand states between the testing conditions and allow us to provide an offset caused by the pressurized environment. Results & Discussion: Initial observation with the bare hands (baseline) condition showed that the MoCap gloves appeared to track grasping and releasing of the fingers (opening and closing fist) with both high- and low-speed conditions, while adduction and abduction of the fingers were not relatively tracked. A hardware evaluation was done outside of the glove box to assess the reliability and repeatability of the MoCap glove. In one task, a point force was applied to various locations on the back of the hand. When the point force was applied to the space between the 1st digit and the pointer finger, there was a noticeable distortion to the MoCap data. Another task examining an increasing force from a 10 lb. sandbag applied to the back of the hand while lying flat on a table, showed a constant flat line with only a distortion when the weight was increased or added to the back of the hand. Fig. 3 shows an object relocation task where you can see when each individual finger “opened” and “closed” (changed position) when picking up and setting down the dumbbell. When the fingers were stationary, the signal remained relatively flat compared to the peaks and valleys that can be observed in Fig. 3. This study showed promising results and imperative input into an attempt to discriminate between hand states across various functional tasks and should be evaluated with context to the repeatability and reliability outcomes. Depending on the task done inside of the pressurized glove box environment and outside, the results appear to be affected by many different factors (i.e., drift, pressure, hand size, etc.). Significance: If this hardware proves to be reliable and repeatable in determining the open and closed hand states then this may provide critical insight into assisting in the characterization of the pressurized gloved environment and the effect on crew member exertion level. Ultimately, this tool will provide useful data for quantifying the repetitive nature of EVA training and tasks. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the NASA Mars Campaign Office for providing funding for this research. Lastly, thanks to all the engineers and technicians at NASA JSC who helped with this data collection. References: [1] Reiber, et al. (2022), NASA/TM-20220007605; [2] Scheuring, et al. (2009), Av., Sp., and Envir. Med. 80(2). [3] Scheuring, et al. (2007), NASA/TM–2007–214755.

Rachel L Thompson↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Analyzing Launch Operations using the Spaceport Throughput Analysis Resource (STAR)

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and Cape CanaveralSpace Force Station (CCSFS) are the world’s preeminent multi-user spaceport, providing facilities and launch capabilities to the agency, NASA’s commercial partners, and other government agencies. KSC works to ensure an environment in which NASA’s programs and other users can safely and effectively carry out their operations. Approximately 100 launches are expected to take place in 2024. KSC needs to meet the needs of customers who request launches based on their own schedules, but who may not be aware of KSC-wide resource limitations and external constraints on launch operations. KSC-wide resources include telecommunications, range tracking, commodities such as Helium and Nitrogen, and special equipment needed to support launches. External constraints include seasonal launch operations. Since space vehicles are complex and launch operations are uncertain, unexpected events can also cause delays in operations. The Spaceport Throughput AnalysisResource (STAR) assesses whether a specific set of pro-posed launches and associated activities can be performed given the resources KSC currently has available, and external constraints imposed on KSC operations. STAR integrates short-horizon scheduling and simulation of launches using a monte-carlo approach driven by configurable probabilities of different classes of event outcomes, including de-lays and worst-case use of resources. The resulting analyses inform stakeholders of key constraints preventing customers from being able to perform their missions as desired, and give insight into how to improve spaceport throughput. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In 2 we de-scribe the problem STAR is intended to solve. In Section3 we formally describe the scheduling problem ingredients. In Section 4 we describe how manifests are simulated. InSection 5 we describe the constraints problem that is solved when rescheduling. In Section 6 we describe what information is recorded during manifest simulation in order to evaluate delays. In Section 7 we describe the specific problem solved for KSC. In Section 8 we describe the challenges of knowledge engineering for STAR.

Planning Scheduling Analysis↗
NASA NTRS2024

Jefferson County Ecological Conservation: Quantifying the Effects of Hydrologic Restoration in the Camas National Wildlife Refuge and Mud Lake Wildlife Management Area

Wetlands in the Camas National Wildlife Refuge and Mud Lake Wildlife Management Area, a rare landscape feature in the Intermountain West, are crucial for migratory birds along the Pacific Flyway, yet these wetlands have experienced a noticeable decline in extent and inundation over the last 40+ years. Partners at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Idaho Department of Fish and Game have ongoing restoration efforts that are yet to be quantified. To assist these partners, we used NASA Earth observations to quantify change in wetland extent and determine if the restoration projects met the intended impact. The QA_PIXEL band from Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) was used to identify water. Landsat 8 OLI imagery was also used for classifying landcover in ArcGIS Pro for 2016 and 2020 and to forecast landcover in 2060 using TerrSet’s Land Change Modeler. We also compared lidar data from 2011 and 2019 to detect changes in vegetation height, ground elevation, and surface water levels, and Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument (MSI) imagery to detect changes in vegetation health. Classification results indicated overall accuracies over 84% and Kappa indices above 0.80, well surpassing random classification performance. From 2016 to 2020 our classifications showed an 825 acre increase in wetland extent, and our forecasted 2060 model showed a 2795 acre decrease. Combining our partners’ knowledge of the area with our analyses, we created a remote sensing workflow to enhance future monitoring and decision-making. This study demonstrated the feasibility of NASA Earth observations in quantifying wetlands, informing restoration projects, and supporting avian conservation.

Cassidy Bromka↗
NASA NTRS2024

Rhode Island Ecological Conservation: Methods for Monitoring Rhode Island Habitats: Contributing to a Framework for Targeted Conservation and Management

Global avian population decline since the 1970s is largely attributable to habitat loss and degradation from anthropogenic disturbances. NASA DEVELOP’s Rhode Island Ecological Conservation team partnered with the Audubon Society of Rhode Island to compute land use land cover (LULC) maps of Rhode Island to aid in the conservation of the state’s 140 bird species. This project aimed to support the partner’s land acquisition strategies with updated and specific LULC classifications showing potential bird-habitat locations across the state. We incorporated remotely sensed data from Landsat 8 and 9 Operational Land Imager (OLI) into LULC maps using unsupervised classification techniques in ArcGIS Pro and supervised classification in Google Earth Engine. We generated six land classifications for 2023, which showed land cover dominated by upland habitats (forests, scrub/shrub, and grasslands), followed by development. We used TerrSet’s Land Change Modeler to forecast LULC change through 2043, using 2011 and 2021 National Land Cover Database (NLCD) land cover maps derived from Landsat 8 and 9 imagery. Project results suggest that non-urban upland and wetland habitats will decrease over time, while development will continue to encroach on non-urban avian habitats. Our maps and associated data will allow for more efficient land acquisition and management efforts to support avian habitat conservation across Rhode Island. Our study shows that data acquisition and processing from open data sources is feasible and further analysis can be done through GIS classification tools. More analysis is needed beyond this study to obtain more detailed land cover maps, though Audubon can aid its targeted conservation efforts with our current, historic, and forecasted LULC maps.

Remote sensing↗
NASA NTRS2024

Cali Urban Development: Using NASA Earth Observations to Assess Wetlands and Land Reclamation in Cali, Colombia

Recent research has documented the global decline of wetlands, largely attributed to increased urbanization and agriculture. This NASA DEVELOP study partnered with two local environmental entities in Cali, Colombia: The Fundación Dinamizadores Ambientales and the Departamento Administrativo de Gestión del Medio Ambiente. The team utilized Earth observations to evaluate trends in wetland extent, potential, and land cover in Cali between 2002 and 2023. A supervised classifier was generated within Google Earth Engine to create land use analyses of the region using Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 8 OLI, and Landsat 9 OLI-2 imagery. To identify locations of wetland potential within the study area, wetland probability was assessed by inputting PlanetScope, Sentinel-2 MSI, and partner-provided datasets into the Wetland Intrinsic Potential Tool in ArcGIS Pro and R. Data from Sentinel-1 C-SAR, Sentinel 2-MSI, and Suomi-NPP VIIRS were used to evaluate wetland extent using the Wetland Extent 3.0 Tool in3 Python. Overall, results indicated high wetland potential, particularly in the southeast region where agricultural areas were previously wetlands. Outputs also suggest a vast network of riparian wetlands in Cali. This study did not investigate socioeconomic data as it relates to wetlands, which is an avenue for future research. This project supplemented research into links between land use change, wetland extent, and wetland potential, and provided partner organizations with an objective foundation from which they can identify at-risk wetlands and develop community initiatives for management, conservation, and education.

Cali↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Microbial Pigments and Their Degradation Products as Biosignatures

Carotenoids are a class of vibrant biological pigments that have a characteristic chemical structure centered around a polyene core (Lu et al. 2018). Carotenoids and their derivatives are candidate biosignatures because they can persist in the terrestrial geologic record for up to 1.73 billion years (Vinnichenko et al. 2020), have specific structures that are likely the result of complex pathways, mediate the survival of many microorganisms in Mars and Ocean Worlds analog environments, and are detectable with multiple techniques, including Raman spectroscopy. In this project, we aim to investigate the detectability of carotenoid pigments with different spectroscopic methods to inform future instrument selection. We compare the spectra of five unaltered carotenoids, two model compounds, and carotenoid-forming archaeon with visible and deep UV Raman spectroscopy and UVVis absorption spectrophotometry. We then use one model pigment, beta-carotene, to evaluate the likelihood that unique spectral properties of carotenoids, or their refractory byproducts, would be preserved and detectable on a remote planetary surface by exposing it to simulated conditions for Mars. Sample Acquisition. Pigments betacarotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, and lycopene were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1 was acquired from Carlina Biological and grown in Halobacterium media. Mineral salts including sodium sulfate, sodium carbonate, and halite were used to form matrices in which the beta-carotene was embedded before exposure. Pigment-mineral mixes were at a 1:10 ratio in water. Analytical Techniques. Deep UV Raman data were collected on a custom laboratory mapping spectrometer called MOBIUS (Mineral and Organic Based Investigations using Ultraviolet Spectroscopy), which is an analog to the SHERLOC instrument on the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover (Bhartia et al. 2021). It features a 248.56 nm NeCu pulsed laser, liquid nitrogen-cooled detector, and tunable optical setup. Visible Raman data were collected using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam HR spectrometer with a frequencydoubled Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) and a HeNe laser (633 nm). A VWR 6300 PC UV/Visible Spectrophotometer was used to collect absorption data for carotenoid solutions, model compounds, and solvents in UVpermissible capped cuvettes. Data were collected from 190-1100 nm at 1 nm increments. All spectral data were analyzed using Igor Pro 9 (Wavemetrics). Irradiation. We used a vacuum chamber equipped with a cryostat and a flood electron gun to simulate Martian surface temperatures, low pressures, and ionizing radiation (10keV, 10μA for 6h at 200K for our initial tests). The samples were prepared by drying the pigment-mineral mix onto polished metal tabs, then mounted on the cryostat for processing. Samples were then analyzed directly on the tabs after exposure. Results: In comparing the visible and deep UV Raman spectra of unaltered pigments, we found that they differed drastically. Carotenoids are often studied with visible Raman and typically have peaks at 1525 cm-1 and 1157 cm-1, due to the stretching of the C=C and C-C bonds in the polyene structure. However, in deep UV, the strongest feature is at ~1630 cm-1 and is broad, possibly indicating that multiple peaks are forming this feature. This stark difference is likely due to different preresonant enhancement effects. The UV-Vis results show that there is an absorption band in the deep UV <300 nm, which supports the hypothesis that the 248.6 nm excitation is interrogating another aspect of carotenoids than visible Raman. Our preliminary exposure tests indicated that pigments – even without minerals present - were largely unaltered in the applied conditions, with only a slight broadening in the primary polyene peaks apparent in the visible Raman data. Figure 1. A) Visible vs. deep UV Raman spectra of unaltered beta carotene. B) Schematic of exposure. Conclusions: Our results to date indicate that deep UV and visible Raman spectroscopy, both techniques with planetary mission heritage from Mars 2020 (Wiens et al. 2021, Bhartia et al. 2021), may be used in a complementary manner to observe carotenoids. In addition, we find that beta-carotene is largely resistant to our current exposure conditions, though there may be some amount of amorphization of the material which could cause the broadening of the peaks at 1525 and 1157 cm-1. As a next step, we aim to increase the dosage and duration of exposure to observe degradation of the parent pigment, possibly add UV as a factor via an Ar mini-arc UV lamp and use GC-MS to characterize possible degradation products.

pigments↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Connecting Community Scientific Hypotheses to Mars Sample Science

The proposed Mars Sample Return (MSR) program seeks to bring back to Earth a set of specially curated samples from the surface of Mars. The first segment of the MSR program is presently under-way; the Mars 2020 rover Perseverance has, to date, collected 24 samples of martian rock, regolith, and at-mosphere within Jezero crater. Its geologically diverse rock sample set can provide insight into the time evolu-tion of the Jezero environment, including the possible preservation of ancient biosignatures. Presently, a cache of 10 samples has been deposited in the Three Forks region on the floor of Jezero crater. These sam-ples, deemed scientifically return worthy by the Mars science community [1], are intended as a contingency sample set, as Perseverance has subsequently obtained more samples, and is therefore storing a more compre-hensive and scientifically valuable set of samples that will grow as the rover ascends to the rim of Jezero crater. The return of samples from Mars has been identi-fied as the highest priority planetary mission in the past three National Academies Decadal Surveys [2-4]. Sub-stantial work has gone into establishing science objec-tives for an MSR program, an overall framework for sample retrieval and analysis, and the expected impact on future Mars science and exploration (e.g., [5]). These objectives have been established at a relatively high level, e.g., “Interpret the primary geologic pro-cesses and history that formed the martian geologic rec-ord, with an emphasis on the role of water.” (Objective 1 in [5]) and are designed to encapsulate the broad sci-entific priorities of, and lay the groundwork for, inves-tigation strategies and measurements to be conducted by a future MSR program. It is from this overarching framework that the Connecting Community Scientific Hypotheses to Mars Sample Science workshop (‘The Workshop’) was conceived, with the purpose of distil-ling these high-level scientific objectives into discrete, testable hypotheses across a range of scientific disci-plines. The output of the workshop is meant to be a ‘hy-pothesis document’ serving as a starting point for cata-loging and condensing specific hypotheses for consid-eration by the scientific community. The template for this approach is based on the “driving hypotheses” de-veloped by the OSIRIS-REx team as part of their Sam-ple Analysis Plan [6].

Michael A Mischna↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) Aerocapture System for Enabling Faster-Larger Planetary Science & Human Exploration Missions

Since our completing the NIAC Phase I NIAC on this Advanced Aerocapture System, NASA Langley Research Center has funded or supported a number of studies and code enhancements through its Center Innovation Fund (CIF) and NASA’s NSTGRO and Internship Programs to mature the analysis capabilities and quantify the merits of the MHD Aerocapture System technology. These efforts have resulted in a plug and play analysis capability for assessing MHD aerocapture system performance for arrival at many planetary bodies of interest. Our efforts have especially focused on the potential mass savings for improving the capacity for science observations at Neptune and Triton. A re-cent Forbes article published “‘Orbital mechanics is probably going to decide for us whether we go to Uranus or Neptune because we need to flyby Jupiter,’ said Kunio Sayanagi at Hampton University, Virginia, who also worked on the Neptune Odyssey proposal…. Exactly when a mission can be sent to Uranus, or Neptune, depends on the relative position of Jupiter, which can help give a spacecraft a gravitational slingshot. That drastically shortens the cruise phase.” [1] Since shortening the cruise phase is important for these science missions, any mass savings enabled by the MHD Aerocapture System could be reallocated to increasing Thermal Protection System mass to allow faster arrival speeds and/or for onboarding additional payloads such as science instruments, batteries, or propellant for conducting more science for longer durations in the desired orbits. The analysis steps and codes for conducting trades and sizing vehicles for aerocapture are as follows: Step 1 is to conduct aeroheating analysis using LAURA of the selected entry vehicle shape to identify locations on the forebody where ionization and flow velocity are sufficient for producing Lo-rentz forces. LAURA is a multiblock structured grid finite-volume CFD solver developed at the NASA Langley Research Center. [2] LAURA has been used for aerothermal analysis support of the entry, de-scent and landing (EDL) phase of interplanetary missions over the last three decades [3-7]. Step 2 is to port the LAURA results into CFDWARP to calcu-late electrical and thermal conductivities of ionized flow for sizing MHD patch system and calculating Lorentz forces needed for controls analysis. CFDWARP is a CFD code that uses advanced nu-merical methods that enable the simulation of the full coupling between the aerodynamics, the magne-tohydrodynamics, and the non-neutral plasma sheaths. CFDWARP has the unique capability to simulate efficiently the non-neutral sheaths (near the electrodes) in coupled form with the quasi-neutral bulk MHD flow [8-11]. Step 3 is to link re-sults from LAURA and CFDWARP into POST2 for calculating entry trajectories and comparing MHD control results with other aerodynamic control strategies. The Program to Optimize Simulated Tra-jectories II (POST2) is a generalized point mass, discrete parameter targeting and optimization pro-gram. POST2 provides the capability to target and optimize point mass trajectories for multiple pow-ered or un-powered vehicles near an arbitrary rotat-ing, oblate planet [12]. Step 4: TPS sizing was per-formed using the Fully Implicit Ablation and Ther-mal-response code (FIAT) tool which computes the transient one-dimensional thermal response and surface thermochemistry of a multilayer stackup of thermal protection, bonding, and structural materi-als subject to aeroheating on one surface [13]. The sizing and margining methodology used was based on the approach documented by Mahzari and Milos [14] for the dual-layered heatshield for extreme entry environment technology (DL-HEEET) TPS concept. TPS analysis utilizes trajectory information from POST2. Using this step-wise plug and play MHD Aerocapture performance assessment process, our analysis targets a Neptune aerocapture trajectory that will place the spacecraft in an observation orbit for Triton. [15]. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) control of a 4.5-meter diameter MSL-style capsule resulted in TPS mass savings of nearly 2000 kg when using an MHD system mass of under 200 kg. The flight path for a vehicle using the MHD control strategy has a much lower heat rate and heat load compared to the conventional aerodynamic aerocapture strategies known as bank angle con-trolled (BAC) and direct force controlled (DFC). Both BAC and DFC have heat rates significantly greater than 1500 W/cm2 typically used as an upper limit for PICA. Thus, DL-HEEET TPS concept was required for the BAC and DFC control strategies. However, considering the more benign environ-ments for the MHD case, additional TPS concepts with improved mass efficiency were also assessed. PICA was considered for the MHD controlled strat-egy since the maximum heat rate was well within the limits (<1500 W/cm2) of PICA. TPS sizing re-sulted in a significant mass reduction. The PICA layer for this sizing case was about 7.8 cm. As a point of reference, the Mars 2020 mission, which used this same PICA concept, had a PICA thickness of 3.18 cm [16]. The trajectories used for the TPS sizing originat-ed from the POST2 simulations. The current, I, to an electromagnet configuration can be manipulated to allow for active control of the vehicle. Manipula-tion of the current, I, changes the magnetic field, B, which affects the Lorentz force and therefore the MHD drag force on the vehicle. Our analysis in-cluded both open-loop and close-loop control. Closed-loop control will enable improved overall performance when taking into account mission level uncertainties, such as interplanetary delivery errors and atmospheric modeling uncertainties. The open-loop and closed-loop MHD control cases do not dip as deep into the atmosphere as the aerodynamic cases. Three types of aerodynamic-only approach-es are investigated: bank angle modulation (BAM), director force control (DFC), and Drag Modulated. BAM and DFC make use of vehicle aerodynamic angles to steer the vehicle. Thus, changing the aer-odynamic forces acting on the vehicle for control, aerodynamic drag modulated case requires a vary-ing drag area to modulate the drag force. The MHD drag modulated case modulates MHD generated drag force that adds to the aerodynamic drag. This higher atmospheric activation of drag forces by the MHD patch results in significantly less heat flux on the vehicle. The MHD technology will enable shorter cruise times and deceleration of larger payloads for increasing the capacity for science at the Ice Giants or for returning astronauts to Earth from cislunar space or from Mars. The purpose of this presentation is to provide more details about this work and to highlight plans for further research and development including a flight demonstration.

R. W. Moses↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Advanced Supersonic Parachute Inflation Research Experiment 2 (ASPIRE2) Flight Mechanics and Parachute Performance

The Advanced Supersonic Parachute Inflation Re-search Experiment-2 (ASPIRE2) program consists of a sounding rocket flight test to be launched at Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in 2025. This effort seeks to qualify the supersonic parachute for the Sample Retrieval Lander (SRL) under the Mars Sample Return (MSR) program, building off the successes of its predecessor program, ASPIRE, which launched in both 2017 and 2018. The conops for the ASPIRE2 mission are shown in Figure 1 relative to its predecessor. While the ASPIRE pro-gram qualified a 21.5 m diameter disk-gap band parachute deployed at Mach 1.7, the SRL parachute will be increased to 24 m in diameter and target a Mach 2.1 parachute deployment condition, the largest diameter supersonic parachute deployed at the highest Mach number to date. These requirements are driven by the increased landing mass of the sample retrieval lander, which is roughly a 50% increase over that of the Mars2020 entry vehicle. These changes necessitate ASPIRE2 to certify the parachute performance under similar deployment conditions. This work will cover the 6-DoF para-chute model implementation and flight mechanics performance for the ASPIRE2 campaign and discuss how these results will impact the design of the test article. The ASPIRE2 trajectory is simulated using a multi-body flight dynamics tool, Program to Optimize Simulated Trajectories II (POST2). This work will summarize both the flight mechanics and parachute modeling (from payload separation until splashdown) and performance for this mission. Various design trades will be assessed such as para-chute tuning parameters as well as vehicle center of gravity location.

Evan Roelke↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Developments of Bosch Process Architectures for ISRU Terrestrial Applications

To effectively realize NASA’s goals of a sustainable presence on the Moon and be-yond, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) must be leveraged. To reduce launch mass for space missions, commodities such as oxygen and carbon can be produced in-situ. Oxygen can be used for life support and as a propellant, and carbon can be used for battery production, filtration, additive manufacturing, and steel casting. Carbon is a required reactant in the carbothermal reduction process, a leading candidate for oxygen production on the lunar surface. To pro-duce these consumables, the Carbon Utilization Technology for Lunar and Atmospheric Systems (CUTLAS) project is developing architectures that leverage the Bosch process. The Bosch process re-acts CO 2 and H 2 to produce carbon powder and water, which can then be electrolyzed, leaving O 2 and recycled H 2 . This process is also applicable to carbon dioxide emissions on Earth.

Carbon capture↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Assessments of Physiology and Cognition in Hybrid-Reality Environments (APACHE)

NASA is planning to return to the Moon in the mid-2020s as a stepping stone to Mars missions in the 2030s. Spacewalks, or extravehicular activities (EVAs), performed on the Moon and Mars will differ in a variety of ways from those that have been performed in decades past. NASA has identified multiple risks to human health and performance associated with a crewed mission to Mars, especially those associated with exploration EVAs which are expected to be a primary mission activity. Crew may be expected to conduct up to 24 hours of EVA per person per week, where the likelihood of injury and/or mental mistakes are increased compared to ground-based training or current microgravity EVAs and the consequences of which can be catastrophic. Current test environments for exploration EVA research and technology development are large, costly facilities that are limited in their availability or capabilities. Spacesuit testing in a reduced gravity environment such as NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, while a good representation of the crew’s physical workload during exploration EVAs, typically has small datasets and is difficult to integrate physiological sensors or other types of crew performance measures. Meanwhile, scientific field-based testing such as NASA’s Desert Research and Technology Studies offers an operationally relevant environment for exploration EVAs, particularly for cognitive workload, but is also limited by small datasets, lack of a pressurized spacesuit, and obtrusive measures. The limitations of current analogs for exploration EVAs identify a need for a new test environment that can approximate both the physical and cognitive demands associated with exploration EVAs to enable rapid, controlled, and repeatable evaluations of human health and performance risks of exploration missions. In response, the Human Physiology, Performance, Protection, and Operations Laboratory (H-3PO) at NASA Johnson Space Center has developed a hybrid reality exploration EVA analog named the Assessments of Physiology And Cognition in Hybrid-reality Environments (APACHE) to address these limitations using a combination of virtual, physical, and hybrid reality techniques. The APACHE facility resides at NASA Johnson Space Center and serves as a large “sandbox” for EVA research and simulation. At its center is a roughly 15x20ft space surrounded by a 14” tall sandbox partially filled with lunar regolith simulant to emulate the physical feeling of walking on a planetary surface and to allow for simulated geology operations. Nearby, a curved passive treadmill (Skillmill Connect, Technogym, Fairfield, NJ) and an omnidirectional treadmill (Infinadeck, Infinadeck, Rocklin, CA) are included to enable exploration of these large virtual environments while also imposing the physical demands, representative timelines, and cognitive burdens required to navigate and traverse these distances during exploration EVA. A 6DOF motion platform is used to simulate rover operations and supports various human performance evaluations and associated risks. Lastly, APACHE can support two extravehicular (EV) crewmembers working in tandem. A computer workstation is located nearby and also supports an intravehicular (IV) crewmember as part of a full mission simulation. The IV crewmember has direct video and audio communication with the EV crew in VR to provide operational and procedural support. The software used in APACHE was created by the JSC Engineering Directorate, in partnership with Buendea, powered by a custom Unreal Engine 5 (UE5.3, Epic Games) project. APACHE currently utilizes the HTC Vive Pro Eye in a wireless configuration for VR simulations. There are two virtual environments that subjects can explore within APACHE, a Lunar and Martian surface. The virtual Lunar surface was created from LIDAR data of the Lunar South Pole to create roughly 16 sq km of explorable terrain. The virtual Martian surface contains roughly 400 sq km of explorable terrain derived from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter LIDAR data of the Jezero Crater. The immersion and related cognitive burdens of conducting a planetary EVA is simulated through a series of EVA-relevant tasks performed in the VR environment, using these high-fidelity visual representations. Additionally, APACHE includes biosensor driven informatics, such as real-time heart rate monitoring and/or derived values from model simulations, for active monitoring by the EV crew and added cognitive demand. A “Wizard of Oz” control panel enables test operators to activate contingency events such as simulated spacesuit malfunctions, loss of communications, and/or limited visibility. Embedded performance measures such as accuracy, completeness, and execution time have been developed for various exploration tasks to objectively quantify crew performance during an EVA and compare impacts to performance when different environmental stressors, both physical and cognitive, are added to or removed from the simulation. Additionally, validated cognitive and operational performance measures such as the Digit Symbol Substitution Task have been recreated and embedded in VR for direct and relatively unobtrusive measurement of motor perception. The APACHE environment currently supports multiple research studies at NASA. Examples include the CHAPEA project, a series of simulated year-long missions on Mars by a 4-person crew; and the CO2 Contingency Walk Back Study, an investigation of elevated CO2 exposure on crew performance during a contingency EVA scenario. APACHE also provides a test environment to support the development of the Crew State and Risk Model, which is a collection of individualized, mathematical models of crew physical and cognitive state; and the Personalized EVA Informatics and Decision Support system, an operational tool for flight controllers, and eventually a self-reliant Martian crew, to make biomedically-informed decisions in real-time to optimize the EVA planning and execution with respect to crew health and performance. Some technical challenges associated with developing the APACHE environment, as well as current limitations, include VR limitless natural walking with a hybrid spacesuit simulator, optimizing performance for wireless PC VR streaming while maintaining a high degree of visual fidelity, and the integration of various physiological (metabolic masks) and psychometric (eye tracking) sensors with the VR headset.

Human Performance↗