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NASA NTRS2008

Growth Control and Disease Mechanisms in Computational Embryogeny

This paper presents novel approach to applying growth control and diseases mechanisms in computational embryogeny. Our method, which mimics fundamental processes from biology, enables individuals to reach maturity in a controlled process through a stochastic environment. Three different mechanisms were implemented; disease mechanisms, gene suppression, and thermodynamic balancing. This approach was integrated as part of a structural evolutionary model. The model evolved continuum 3-D structures which support an external load. By using these mechanisms we were able to evolve individuals that reached a fixed size limit through the growth process. The growth process was an integral part of the complete development process. The size of the individuals was determined purely by the evolutionary process where different individuals matured to different sizes. Individuals which evolved with these characteristics have been found to be very robust for supporting a wide range of external loads.

Genetic algorithm↗

DOE OSTI2019

Aerosol Mixing State: Measurements, Modeling, and Impacts

Atmospheric aerosols are complex mixtures of different chemical species, and individual particles exist in many different shapes and morphologies. Together, these characteristics contribute to the aerosol mixing state. This review provides an overview of measurement techniques to probe aerosol mixing state, discusses how aerosol mixing state is represented in atmospheric models at different scales, and synthesizes our knowledge of aerosol mixing state's impact on climate-relevant properties, such as cloud condensation and ice nucleating particle concentrations, and aerosol optical properties. We present these findings within a framework that defines aerosol mixing state along with appropriate mixing state metrics to quantify it. Future research directions are identified, with a focus on the need for integrating mixing state measurements and modeling.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS2016

Estimation of Optimum Stimulus Amplitude for Balance Training using Electrical Stimulation of the Vestibular System

Sensorimotor changes such as posture and gait instabilities can affect the functional performance of astronauts after gravitational transitions. Sensorimotor Adaptability (SA) training can help alleviate decrements on exposure to novel sensorimotor environments based on the concept of 'learning to learn' by exposure to varying sensory challenges during posture and locomotion tasks (Bloomberg 2015). Supra-threshold Stochastic Vestibular Stimulation (SVS) can be used to provide one of many challenges by disrupting vestibular inputs. In this scenario, the central nervous system can be trained to utilize veridical information from other sensory inputs, such as vision and somatosensory inputs, for posture and locomotion control. The minimum amplitude of SVS to simulate the effect of deterioration in vestibular inputs for preflight training or for evaluating vestibular contribution in functional tests in general, however, has not yet been identified. Few studies (MacDougall 2006; Dilda 2014) have used arbitrary but fixed maximum current amplitudes from 3 to 5 mA in the medio-lateral (ML) direction to disrupt balance function in healthy adults. Giving this high level of current amplitude to all the individuals has a risk of invoking side effects such as nausea and discomfort. The goal of this study was to determine the minimum SVS level that yields an equivalently degraded balance performance. Thirteen subjects stood on a compliant foam surface with their eyes closed and were instructed to maintain a stable upright stance. Measures of stability of the head, trunk, and whole body were quantified in the ML direction. Duration of time they could stand on the foam surface was also measured. The minimum SVS dosage was defined to be that level which significantly degraded balance performance such that any further increase in stimulation level did not lead to further balance degradation. The minimum SVS level was determined by performing linear fits on the performance variable at different stimulation levels. Results from the balance task suggest that there are inter-individual differences and the minimum SVS amplitude was found to be in the range of 1 mA to 2.5 mA across subjects. SVS resulted in an average decrement of balance task performance in the range of 62%-73% across different measured variables at the minimum SVS amplitude in comparison to the control trial (no stimulus). Training using supra-threshold SVS stimulation is one of the sensory challenges used for preflight SA training designed to improve adaptability to novel gravitational environments. Inter-individual differences in response to SVS can help customize the SA training paradigms using minimal dosage required. Another application of using SVS is to simulate acute deterioration of vestibular sensory inputs in the evaluation of tests for assessing vestibular function.

Goel, R.↗

DOE OSTI2018

A 2 TiO 5 (A = Dy, Gd, Er, Yb) at High Pressure

Here, the structural evolution of lanthanide A 2 TiO 5 (A = Dy, Gd, Yb, and Er) at high pressure is investigated using synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The effects of A-site cation size and of the initial structure are systematically examined by varying the composition of the isostructural lanthanide titanates, and the structure of dysprosium titanate polymorphs (orthorhombic, hexagonal and cubic), respectively. All samples undergo irreversible high pressure phase transformations, but with different onset pressures depending on the initial structure. While individual phase exhibits different phase transformation histories, all samples commonly experience a sluggish transformation to a defect cotunnite-like ( Pnma ) phase for a certain pressure range. Orthorhombic Dy 2 TiO 5 and Gd 2 TiO 5 form P2 1 am at pressures below 9 GPa and Pnma above 13 GPa. Pyrochlore-type Dy 2 TiO 5 and Er 2 TiO 5 as well as defect-fluorite-type Yb 2 TiO 5 form Pnma at ~ 21 GPa, followed by Im3¯m . Hexagonal Dy 2 TiO 5 forms Pnma directly, although a small amount of remnants of hexagonal Dy 2 TiO 5 is observed even at the highest pressure (~ 55 GPa) reached, indicating a kinetic limitations in the hexagonal Dy 2 TiO 5 phase transformations at high pressure. Decompression of these materials leads to different metastable phases. Most interestingly, a high pressure cubic X-type phase ( Im3¯m ) is confirmed using highresolution transmission electron microscopy on recovered pyrochlore-type Er 2 TiO 5 . The kinetic constraints on this metastable phase yield a mixture of both the X-type phase and amorphous domains upon pressure release. This is the first observation of an X-type phase for an A 2 BO 5 composition at high pressure.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2016

UNCERTAINTIES IN GALACTIC CHEMICAL EVOLUTION MODELS

We use a simple one-zone galactic chemical evolution model to quantify the uncertainties generated by the input parameters in numerical predictions for a galaxy with properties similar to those of the Milky Way. We compiled several studies from the literature to gather the current constraints for our simulations regarding the typical value and uncertainty of the following seven basic parameters: the lower and upper mass limits of the stellar initial mass function (IMF), the slope of the high-mass end of the stellar IMF, the slope of the delay-time distribution function of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), the number of SNe Ia per M {sub ⊙} formed, the total stellar mass formed, and the final mass of gas. We derived a probability distribution function to express the range of likely values for every parameter, which were then included in a Monte Carlo code to run several hundred simulations with randomly selected input parameters. This approach enables us to analyze the predicted chemical evolution of 16 elements in a statistical manner by identifying the most probable solutions, along with their 68% and 95% confidence levels. Our results show that the overall uncertainties are shaped by several input parameters that individually contribute at different metallicities, and thus at different galactic ages. The level of uncertainty then depends on the metallicity and is different from one element to another. Among the seven input parameters considered in this work, the slope of the IMF and the number of SNe Ia are currently the two main sources of uncertainty. The thicknesses of the uncertainty bands bounded by the 68% and 95% confidence levels are generally within 0.3 and 0.6 dex, respectively. When looking at the evolution of individual elements as a function of galactic age instead of metallicity, those same thicknesses range from 0.1 to 0.6 dex for the 68% confidence levels and from 0.3 to 1.0 dex for the 95% confidence levels. The uncertainty in our chemical evolution model does not include uncertainties relating to stellar yields, star formation and merger histories, and modeling assumptions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2018

Individual variability of protein expression in human tissues

Human tissues are known to exhibit inter-individual proteomic variability, but a deeper understanding of the different factors affecting peptide expression is necessary to further apply this knowledge. Our goal was to explore proteomic discrepancies between individuals as well as between healthy and diseased samples, and to test whether heterogeneous data from many different individuals could be used to build a tissue classifier. In order to investigate whether disparate proteomics datasets may be combined to provide meaningful insights, we performed a retrospective analysis of proteomics data from 9 different human tissues. These datasets represent several different sample prep methods, mass spectrometry instruments, and tissue health. Using this data we examined inter-individual and inter-tissue variability in peptide expression, and analyzed the methods required to build accurate tissue classifiers. We also evaluated the limits of tissue classification, and how results may be improved. These tests provided insights about how classification techniques may be applied to situations where less data is available, such as clinical biopsies, laser capture microdissected samples or potentially to classify cells types based on single cell proteomics. Our findings reveal the strong potential for utilizing proteomics data to build robust tissue classifiers, which has many prospective clinical applications.

Kushner, Irena K.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Timing based clustering in the Northern Finland Birth Cohorts 1966 and 1986 suggests two new patterns for childhood BMI curve [Poster]

Childhood body mass index (BMI) is a widely used measure of adiposity in children (<18 years of age). Children grow with individual tempo and individuals of the same age, or of the same BMI, might be in different phases in their individual growth curves. Variability between different childhood BMI curves can be separated in two components: phase variability (x-axis; time) and amplitude variability (y-axis; BMI). Phase variability can be thought of arising from differences in maturational age between individuals. This is related to the timing of peaks and valleys in a child’s BMI curve.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Microstructural evolution and deformation behavior of Al-Cu alloys: A Transmission X-ray Microscopy (TXM) and micropillar compression study

In this paper, a unique approach to correlating an evolving 3D microstructure in an Al-Cu alloy and its micro-scale mechanical properties has been introduced. Using these nanoscale three-dimensional microstructures derived from Transmission X-ray Microscopy (TXM), individual contributions from different strengthening mechanisms were quantified. The spatial distribution and morphology of the individual θ' and θ phases were seen to play an important role in influencing dislocation storage. Uniaxial micro-compression experiments were used to quantify the stress-strain response of the alloy at different aging times. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) aided in discerning dislocation activity at these precipitates. A model is proposed to accurately predict the variation in yield stress by using appropriate morphological parameters from the 3D microstructure and its validity has been corroborated using experimental measurements. Distributions of 2D and 3D inter-precipitate spacing were seen to provide crucial insights on influencing deformation in such precipitation-strengthened alloys. In conclusion, the transition in deformation behavior and origin of numerous strain bursts were investigated using in situ micropillar compression testing.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2015

Photoelectron spectroscopy of hexachloroplatinate-nucleobase complexes: Nucleobase excited state decay observed via delayed electron emission

We report low-temperature photoelectron spectra of isolated gas-phase complexes of the hexachloroplatinate dianion bound to the nucleobases uracil, thymine, cytosine, and adenine. The spectra display well-resolved, distinct peaks that are consistent with complexes where the hexachloroplatinate dianion is largely intact. Adiabatic electron detachment energies for the hexachloroplatinate-nucleobase complexes are measured as 2.26-2.36 eV. The magnitudes of the repulsive Coulomb barriers (RCBs) of the complexes are all ∼1.7 eV, values that are lower than the RCB of the uncomplexed PtCl{sub 6}{sup 2−} dianion as a result of charge solvation by the nucleobases. In addition to the resolved spectral features, broad featureless bands indicative of delayed electron detachment are observed in the 193 nm photoelectron spectra of the four clusters. The 266 nm spectra of the PtCl{sub 6}{sup 2−} ⋅ thymine and PtCl{sub 6}{sup 2−} ⋅ adenine complexes also display very prominent delayed electron emission bands. These results mirror recent results on the related Pt(CN){sub 4}{sup 2−} ⋅ nucleobase complexes [A. Sen et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 119, 11626 (2015)]. The observation of delayed electron emission bands in the PtCl{sub 6}{sup 2−} ⋅ nucleobase spectra obtained in this work, as for the previously studied Pt(CN){sub 4}{sup 2−} ⋅ nucleobase complexes, is attributed to one-photon excitation of nucleobase-centred excited states that can effectively couple to the electron detachment continuum, producing strong electron detachment. Moreover, the selective, strong excitation of the delayed emission bands in the 266 nm spectra is linked to fundamental differences in the individual nucleobase photophysics at this excitation energy. This strongly supports our previous suggestion that the dianion within these clusters can be viewed as a “dynamic tag” which has the propensity to emit electrons when the attached nucleobase decays over a time scale long enough to allow autodetachment.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2014

SU-E-J-64: Evaluation of a Commercial EPID-Based in Vivo Dosimetric System in the Presence of Lung Tissue Heterogeneity

Purpose: To study the performance of Dosimetry Check (DC), an EPID-based dosimetry software, which allows performing transit dosimetry, in low density medium, by comparing calculations in-phantom, and analysing results for 15 lung patients. Methods: DC software (v.3.8, pencil beam-based algorithm) has been tested, for plans (Eclipse v.10.0 TPS) delivered in two Varian Clinac iX equipped with aS1000 EPIDs.In the CIRS lung phantom, comparisons between DC and Eclipse (Acuros) were performed for several plans: (1) four field box; (2) square field delivered in arc mode; (3) RapidArc lung patient plan medially centred; (4) RapidArc lung patient plan centred in one lung. Reference points analysed: P1 (medial point, plans 1–3) and P2 (located inside one lung, plan 4).For fifteen lung patients treated with RapidArc, the isocentre and 9 additional points inside the PTV as well as the gamma passing rate (3%/3mm) for the PTV and at the main planes were studied. Results: In-phantom:P1: Per-field differences in plan 1: good agreement for AP-PA fields; discrepancy of 7% for the lateral fields. Global differences (plans 1–3): about 4%, showing a compensating effect of the individual differences.P2: Global difference (plan 4): 15 %. This represents the worst case situation as it is a point surrounded by lung tissue, where the DC pencil beam algorithm is expected to give the greater difference against Acuros.Lung patients: Mean point difference inside the PTV:(5.4±4.2) %. Gamma passing rate inside the PTV:(45±12) %. Conclusion: The performance of DC in heterogeneous lung medium was studied with a special phantom and the results for 15 patients were analysed. The found deviations show that even though DC is a highly promising in vivo dosimetry tool, there is a need of incorporating a more accurate algorithm mainly for plans with low density regions involved.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1977

Radial variation of lunar crater rim topography

The paper presents results of determinations of variations of rim topography as a function of range from the crater rim for a group of morphologically fresh craters. It is found that the rate at which exterior crater topography converges with the surrounding surface is highly variable among different radial directions at individual craters as well as between different craters, and that at several craters, oblique impact appears to have contributed to azimuthal elevation/range variations.

Settle, M.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Subsystem Details for the Fiscal Year 2004 Advanced Life Support Research and Technology Development Metric

This document provides values at the assembly level for the subsystems described in the Fiscal Year 2004 Advanced Life Support Research and Technology Development Metric (Hanford, 2004). Hanford (2004) summarizes the subordinate computational values for the Advanced Life Support Research and Technology Development (ALS R&TD) Metric at the subsystem level, while this manuscript provides a summary at the assembly level. Hanford (2004) lists mass, volume, power, cooling, and crewtime for each mission examined by the ALS R&TD Metric according to the nominal organization for the Advanced Life Support (ALS) elements. The values in the tables below, Table 2.1 through Table 2.8, list the assemblies, using the organization and names within the Advanced Life Support Sizing Analysis Tool (ALSSAT) for each ALS element. These tables specifically detail mass, volume, power, cooling, and crewtime. Additionally, mass and volume are designated in terms of values associated with initial hardware and resupplied hardware just as they are within ALSSAT. The overall subsystem values are listed on the line following each subsystem entry. These values are consistent with those reported in Hanford (2004) for each listed mission. Any deviations between these values and those in Hanford (2004) arise from differences in when individual numerical values are rounded within each report, and therefore the resulting minor differences should not concern even a careful reader. Hanford (2004) u es the uni ts kW(sub e) and kW(sub th) for power and cooling, respectively, while the nomenclature below uses W(sub e) and W(sub th), which is consistent with the native units within ALSSAT. The assemblies, as specified within ALSSAT, are listed in bold below their respective subsystems. When recognizable assembly components are not listed within ALSSAT, a summary of the assembly is provided on the same line as the entry for the assembly. Assemblies with one or more recognizable components are further described by the indented entries below them. See Yeh, et al. (2002), Yeh, et al. (2003), and Yeh, et al. (2004) for details about ALSSAT organization. Except for the dry food mass listed within the Food Processing, Packaging, and Storage within the Food Subsystem, total values for assemblies would be the sum of their components. The Dry Food Mass, however, is that portion of the food system that was neglected during the computation of the Fiscal Year 2004 ALS R&TD Metric. It is listed here to provide a reference, but it is otherwise ignored in the overall totals. See Hanford (2004) for details of this process and supporting rationale. When applicable, the technology label from ALSSAT is listed in the second column, and the associated abbreviations are listed below in Section 4. For more details of the technologies assumed for each mission, please see Hanford (2004) for descriptions of each subsystem and an overall life support system schematic.

Hanford, Anthony J.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Neutron Leakage Spectra of the EUCLID Experiment [Abstract]

Integral experiments with sub-critical and critical configurations of special nuclear material are performed in support of nuclear data validation and adjustment. Different nuclear data evaluations may have different values for individual cross sections due to uncertainties in (or lack of) differential experiments, but compensating errors in these data sets can lead to the same k eff results for one application while vastly different for another application. One example of this is 239 Pu, where both ENDF/B-VIII.0 and JEFF-3.3 correctly compute k eff of the Jezebel critical assembly, but the individual contributions from each reaction are vastly different. To help resolve this specific case, the Experiments Underpinned by Computational Learning for Improvements in Nuclear Data (EUCLID) project used machine learning to design a set of experiments to help resolve the compensating errors in 239 Pu. A total of six responses were measured during the experimental campaign, which constrain the data in ways that k eff alone cannot and will be used for adjustment of the nuclear data. One of these responses is the neutron leakage spectrum, which recent work has shown to be useful for constraining the prompt fission neutron spectrum and inelastic scattering. The neutron leakage spectra were measured utilizing a 3 in. right cylinder EJ-301D detector. The measured signal in the detector was deconvoluted using spectrum unfolding techniques, which are presented and compared to simulations.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2021

An Assessment of Global Positioning System Velocity Uncertainty in California

We analyze data from 580 continuous global positioning system (GPS) stations in California to quantify differences in published velocity estimates from five analysis centers. Horizontal and vertical rates for individual stations can differ up to 5 mm/yr, with systematic differences in some areas comparable to deformation rates. Published velocity uncertainties vary between analysis centers and are systematically underreported in the horizontal relative to empirical uncertainties calculated from the scatter of analysis center velocities. In the vertical, published velocity uncertainties are both over and underreported and vary more widely between centers. An interpolated ensemble vertical velocity field shows high-subsidence regions in the Central Valley and Salton Trough have the largest empirical uncertainties, while station density has a modest impact on uncertainties. Applications that rely on subcentimeter GPS accuracy should consider the possibility that formal errors published with velocity rate estimates understate true velocity uncertainties in both the horizontal and vertical.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

O 2 -Oxidation of Individual Graphite and Graphene Nanoparticles in the 1200 – 2200 K Range: Particle-to-Particle Variations and the Evolution of the Reaction Rates and Optical Properties

The kinetics for O 2 oxidation of individual graphite and graphene platelet nanoparticles (NPs) were studied as a function of temperature (1200 to 2200 K) at varying oxygen partial pressures, using a single nanoparticle mass spectrometry method. NP temperature (TNP) was measured by measuring the NP thermal emission spectra during the kinetics studies. The initial oxidation efficiency is found to peak in the 1200 to 1500 K range, dropping by an order of magnitude as TNP was increased above 2000 K. There were large NP-to-NP variations in the oxidation rates, attributed to variations in the NP surface structure. In addition, the oxidation efficiencies evolved, non-monotonically, as the NPs reacted, decreasing by factors of between 10 and 300. This evolution of reactivity is attributed to changes in the NP surface structure due to the combination of oxidation and annealing. In conclusion, the optical properties, including wavelength dependence of the emissivity and the absorption cross section for the 532 nm heating laser, also tended to evolve as the NPs oxidized, but differently for each individual NP, presumably reflecting differences in the initial structures and their evolution.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

The spread of technological innovations: effects of psychology, culture and policy interventions

Technological innovations drive the evolution of human societies. The success of innovations depends not only on their actual benefits but also on how potential adopters perceive them and how their beliefs are affected by their social and cultural environment. To deepen our understanding of socio-psychological processes affecting the new technology spread, we model the joint dynamics of three interlinked processes: individual learning and mastering the new technology, changes in individual attitudes towards it, and changes in individual adoption decisions. We assume that the new technology can potentially lead to a higher benefit but achieving it requires learning. We posit that individual decision-making process as well as their attitudes are affected by cognitive dissonance and conformity with peers and an external authority. Individuals vary in different psychological characteristics and in their attitudes. We investigate both transient dynamics and long-term equilibria observed in our model. We show that early adopters are usually individuals who are characterized by low cognitive dissonance and low conformity with peers but are sensitive to the effort of an external authority promoting the innovation. We examine the effectiveness of five different intervention strategies aiming to promote the diffusion of a new technology: training individuals, providing subsidies for early adopters, increasing the visibility of peer actions, simplifying the exchange of opinions between people, and increasing the effort of an external authority. We also discuss the effects of culture on the spread of innovations. Finally, we demonstrate that neglecting the cognitive forces and the dynamic nature of individual attitudes can lead to wrong conclusions about adoption of innovations. Our results can be useful in developing more efficient policies aiming to promote the spread of new technologies in different societies, cultures and countries.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2015

Telomere length differences between subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue in humans

Adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia have been shown to be associated with shorter telomere length, which may reflect aging, altered cell proliferation and adipose tissue (AT) dysfunction. In individuals with obesity, differences in fat distribution and AT cellular composition may contribute to obesity related metabolic diseases. Here, we tested the hypotheses that telomere lengths (TL) are different between: (1) abdominal subcutaneous and omental fat depots, (2) superficial and deep abdominal subcutaneous AT (SAT), and (3) adipocytes and cells of the stromal vascular fraction (SVF). We further asked whether AT TL is related to age, anthropometric and metabolic traits. TL was analyzed by quantitative PCR in total human genomic DNA isolated from paired subcutaneous and visceral AT of 47 lean and 50 obese individuals. In subgroups, we analyzed TL in isolated small and large adipocytes and SVF cells. We find significantly shorter TL in subcutaneous compared to visceral AT (P < 0.001) which is consistent in men and subgroups of lean and obese, and individuals with or without type 2 diabetes (T2D). Shorter TL in SAT is entirely due to shorter TL in the SVF compared to visceral AT (P < 0.01). SAT TL is most strongly correlated with age (r = −0.205, P < 0.05) and independently of age with HbA1c (r = −0.5, P < 0.05). We found significant TL differences between superficial SAT of lean and obese as well as between individuals with our without T2D, but not between the two layers of SAT. Our data indicate that fat depot differences in TL mainly reflect shorter TL of SVF cells. In addition, we found an age and BMI-independent relationship between shorter TL and HbA1c suggesting that chronic hyperglycemia may impair the regenerative capacity of AT more strongly than obesity alone. - Highlights: • Telomere lengths (TL) differ between fat depots mainly due to different lengths in SVF. • TL is not associated with gender, BMI and T2D. • The tendency for shorter TL in small versus large adipocytes suggests that small adipocytes represent a younger generation of adipocytes. • TLs of superficial subcutaneous adipose tissue are shorter in T2D patients compared to non-diabetic controls. • TL is not different between deep and superficial adipose tissue.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS2005

Shape Sensing a Morphed Wing with an Optical Fiber Bragg Grating

We suggest using distributed fiber Bragg sensors systems which were developed locally at Langley Research Center carefully placed on the wing surface to collect strain component information at each location. Then we used the fact that the rate change of slope in the definition of linear strain is very small and can be treated as a constant. Thereby the strain distribution information of a morphed surface can be reduced into a distribution of local slope information of a flat surface. In other words a morphed curve surface is replaced by the collection of individual flat surface of different slope. By assembling the height of individual flat surface, the morphed curved surface can be approximated. A more sophisticated graphic routine can be utilized to restore the curved morphed surface. With this information, the morphed wing can be further adjusted and controlled. A numerical demonstration is presented.

Tai, Hsiang↗