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NASA NTRS1983

An experimental study of transonic flow about a supercritical airfoil

A series of experiments was conducted on flow fields about two airfoil models whose sections are slight modifications of the original Whitcomb supercritical airfoil section. Data obtained include surface static-pressure distributions, far-wake surveys, oil-flow photographs, pitot-pressure surveys in the viscous regions, and holographic interferograms. These data were obtained for different combinations of lift coefficient and free-stream Mach number, which included both subcritical cases and flows with upper-surface shock waves. The availability of both pitot-pressure data and density data from interferograms allowed determination of flow-field properties in the vicinity of the trailing edge and in the wake without recourse to any assumptions about the local static pressure. The data show that significant static-pressure gradients normal to viscous layers exist in this region, and that they persist to approximately 10% chord downstream of the trailing edge. Comparisons are made between measured boundary-layer properties and results from boundary-layer computations that employed measured static-pressure distributions, as well as comparisons between data and results of airfoil flow-field computations.

Spaid, F. W.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Cosmic-ray-modified stellar winds. III - A numerical iterative approach

A numerical iterative method is used to determine the modification of a stellar wind flow with a termination shock by the galactic cosmic rays. A two-fluid model consisting of cosmic rays and thermal stellar wind gas is used in which the cosmic rays are coupled to the background flow via scattering with magnetohydrodynamic waves or irregularities. A polytropic model is used to describe the thermal stellar wind gas, and the cosmic-rays are modeled as a hot, low-density gas with negligible mass flux. The positive galactic cosmic-ray pressure gradient serves to brake the outflowing stellar wind gas, and the cosmic rays modify the location of the critical point of the wind, the location of the shock, the wind fluid velocity profile, and the thermal gas entropy constants on both sides of the shock. The transfer of energy to the cosmic rays results in an outward radial flux of cosmic-ray energy.

Ko, C. M.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Magnetohydrodynamic Instabilities in a Simple Gasdynamic Mirror Propulsion System

The gasdynamic mirror has been proposed as a concept which could form the basis of a highly efficient fusion rocket engine. Gasdynamic mirrors differ from most other mirror type plasma confinement schemes in that they have much larger aspect ratios and operate at somewhat higher plasma densities. To evaluate whether a gasdynamic mirror could indeed confine plasmas in a stable manner for long periods of time, a small scale experimental gasdynamic mirror was built and tested. The objective of this experiment was to determine ranges of mirror ratios and plasma densities over which gasdynamic mirror could maintain stable plasmas. Theoretical analyses indicated that plasma magnetohydrodynamic instabilities were likely to occur during subsonic to supersonic flow transitions in the mirror throat region of the gasdynamic mirror. The experimental evidence based upon data derived from the Langmuir probe measurements seems to confirm this analysis. The assumption that a gasdynamic mirror using a simple mirror geometry could be used as a propulsion system, therefore, appears questionable. Modifications to the simple mirror concept are presented which could mitigate these MHD instabilities.

Emrich, William J., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Requirements for regional short-haul air service and the definition of a flight program to determine neighborhood reactions to small transport aircraft

An evaluation of the current status and future requirements of an intraregional short haul air service is given. A brief definition of the different types of short haul air service is given. This is followed by a historical review of previous attempts to develop short haul air service in high density urban areas and an assessment of the current status. The requirements for intraregional air service, the need for economic and environmental viability and the need for a flight research program are defined. A detailed outline of a research program that would determine urban community reaction to frequent operations of small transport aircraft is also given. Both the operation of such an experiment in a specific region (San Francisco Bay area) and the necessary design modifications of an existing fixed wing aircraft which could be used in the experiment are established. An estimate is made of overall program costs.

Feher, K.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Evaluation of semiempirical atmospheric density models for orbit determination applications

This paper presents the results of an investigation of the orbit determination performance of the Jacchia-Roberts (JR), mass spectrometer incoherent scatter 1986 (MSIS-86), and drag temperature model (DTM) atmospheric density models. Evaluation of the models was performed to assess the modeling of the total atmospheric density. This study was made generic by using six spacecraft and selecting time periods of study representative of all portions of the 11-year cycle. Performance of the models was measured for multiple spacecraft, representing a selection of orbit geometries from near-equatorial to polar inclinations and altitudes from 400 kilometers to 900 kilometers. The orbit geometries represent typical low earth-orbiting spacecraft supported by the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) Flight Dynamics Division (FDD). The best available modeling and orbit determination techniques using the Goddard Trajectory Determination System (GTDS) were employed to minimize the effects of modeling errors. The latest geopotential model available during the analysis, the Goddard earth model-T3 (GEM-T3), was employed to minimize geopotential model error effects on the drag estimation. Improved-accuracy techniques identified for TOPEX/Poseidon orbit determination analysis were used to improve the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS)-based orbit determination used for most of the spacecraft chosen for this analysis. This paper shows that during periods of relatively quiet solar flux and geomagnetic activity near the solar minimum, the choice of atmospheric density model used for orbit determination is relatively inconsequential. During typical solar flux conditions near the solar maximum, the differences between the JR, DTM, and MSIS-86 models begin to become apparent. Time periods of extreme solar activity, those in which the daily and 81-day mean solar flux are high and change rapidly, result in significant differences between the models. During periods of high geomagnetic activity, the standard JR model was outperformed by DTM. Modification of the JR model to use a geomagnetic heating delay of 3 hours, as used in DTM, instead of the 6.7-hour delay produced results comparable to or better than the DTM performance, reducing definitive orbit solution ephermeris overlap differences by 30 to 50 percent. The reduction in the overlap differences would be useful for mitigating the impact of geomagnetic storms on orbit prediction.

Cox, C. M.↗

NASA NTRS2011

Effective Tree Scattering at L-Band

For routine microwave Soil Moisture (SM) retrieval through vegetation, the tau-omega [1] model [zero-order Radiative Transfer (RT) solution] is attractive due to its simplicity and eases of inversion and implementation. It is the model used in baseline retrieval algorithms for several planned microwave space missions, such as ESA's Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission (launched November 2009) and NASA's Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission (to be launched 2014/2015) [2 and 3]. These approaches are adapted for vegetated landscapes with effective vegetation parameters tau and omega by fitting experimental data or simulation outputs of a multiple scattering model [4-7]. The model has been validated over grasslands, agricultural crops, and generally light to moderate vegetation. As the density of vegetation increases, sensitivity to the underlying SM begins to degrade significantly and errors in the retrieved SM increase accordingly. The zero-order model also loses its validity when dense vegetation (i.e. forest, mature corn, etc.) includes scatterers, such as branches and trunks (or stalks in the case of corn), which are large with respect to the wavelength. The tau-omega model (when applied over moderately to densely vegetated landscapes) will need modification (in terms of form or effective parameterization) to enable accurate characterization of vegetation parameters with respect to specific tree types, anisotropic canopy structure, presence of leaves and/or understory. More scattering terms (at least up to first-order at L-band) should be included in the RT solutions for forest canopies [8]. Although not really suitable to forests, a zero-order tau-omega model might be applied to such vegetation canopies with large scatterers, but that equivalent or effective parameters would have to be used [4]. This requires that the effective values (vegetation opacity and single scattering albedo) need to be evaluated (compared) with theoretical definitions of these parameters. In a recent study [9], effective vegetation opacity of coniferous trees was compared with two independent estimates of the same parameter. First, a zero-order RT model was fitted to multiangular microwave emissivity data in a least-square sense to provide effective vegetation optical depth as done in spaceborne retrieval algorithms. Second, a ratio between radar backscatter measurements with a corner reflector under trees and in an open area was calculated to obtain measured tree propagation characteristics. Finally, the theoretical propagation constant was determined by forward scattering theorem using detailed measurements of size/angle distributions and dielectric constants of the tree constituents (trunk, branches, and needles). Results indicated that the effective attenuation values are smaller than but of similar magnitude to both the theoretical and measured values. This study will complement the previous work [9] and will focus on characterization of effective scattering albedo by assuming that effective vegetation opacity is same as theoretical opacity. The resultant effective albedo will not be the albedo of single forest canopy element anymore, but it becomes a global parameter, which depends on all the processes taking place within the canopy including multiple scattering as described.

Kurum, Mehmet↗

NASA NTRS2021

Sensitivity of Low Tropospheric Arctic Temperatures to Assimilation of AIRS Cloud-Cleared Radiances: Impact on Mid-Latitude Waves

In this work, it is shown that the prediction of individual mid-latitude waves in a global forecast framework is sensitive to the initialization over the Arctic and may benefit from the assimilation of cloud-cleared radiances (CCRs) from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), particularly in partially cloudy regions with active dynamics. This study shows that the assimilation of AIRS CCRs over the Arctic Ocean, providing more information than clear-sky radiances from areas affected by broken low-level stratus clouds, produces slightly cooler low-level temperatures and lower mid-tropospheric height through hydrostatic adjustment. In areas that are data void, as observed by clear-sky radiances, and dynamically active, the assimilation of CCRs provides valuable information that can improve the representation of individual baroclinic waves and their subsequent forecasts. The modifications induced by the assimilation of AIRS CCRs over the Arctic Ocean slightly modifies the geopotential height gradients between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes, leading to potential improvements in the forecast of individual baroclinic waves as is shown through a case study. The observing system experiment (OSE) is performed with the NASA Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) data assimilation and forecast system during boreal autumn 2014. AIRS CCRs are thinned to approximately one quarter the density of operationally assimilated AIRS radiances, consistent with their higher information content. Global, 6-hourly analyses are produced from 1 September to 10 November 2014 and 7-day forecasts are initialized at 0000 UTC daily. Since the CCR methodology is widely applicable, these findings are also relevant to other infrared sensors.

Cloud-clearing↗

NASA NTRS2012

Development of a Robust, High Current, Low Power Field Emission Electron Gun for a Spaceflight Reflectron Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer

Carbon materials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nitrogen-incorporated ultrananocrystalline diamond (N-UNCD), have been of considerable interest for field emission applications for over a decade. In particular, robust field emission materials are compelling for space applications due to the low power consumption and potential for miniaturization. A reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF-MS) under development for in situ measurements on the Moon and other Solar System bodies uses a field emitter to generate ions from gaseous samples, using electron ionization. For these unusual environments, robustness, reliability, and long life are of paramount importance, and to this end, we have explored the field emission properties and lifetime of carbon nanotubes and nitrogen-incorporated ultrananocrystalline diamond (N-UNCD) thin films, the latter developed and patented by Argonne National Laboratory. We will present recent investigations of N-UNCD as a robust field emitter, revealing that this material offers stable performance in high vacuum for up to 1000 hours with threshold voltage for emission of about 3-4 V/lJm and current densities in the range of tens of microA. Optimizing the mass resolution and sensitivity of such a mass spectrometer has also been enabled by a parallel effort to scale up a CNT emitter to an array measuring 2 mm x 40 mm. Through simulation and experiment of the new extended format emitter, we have determined that focusing the electron beam is limited due to the angular spread of the emitted electrons. This dispersion effect can be reduced through modification of the electron gun geometry, but this reduces the current reaching the ionization region. By increasing the transmission efficiency of the electron beam to the anode, we have increased the anode current by two orders of magnitude to realize a corresponding enhancement in instrument sensitivity, at a moderate cost to mass resolution. We will report recent experimental and modeling results to describe the performance of a field emission electron gun as employed in the Volatile Analysis by Pyrolysis of Regolith (VAPoR) TOF-MS prototype.

Southard, Adrian E.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Effects of finite plasma beta on the lower-hybrid-drift instability

The local dispersion relation for the lower-hybrid-drift (LHD) instability is derived and analyzed, taking into account the finite-beta effects associated with transverse electromagnetic perturbations as well as with resonant and nonresonant electron-orbit modifications due to magnetic-field gradients. The influence of finite-beta effects on the LHD instability is calculated in a fully self-consistent manner for arbitrary values of electron-ion temperature ratio, local beta, cross-field ExB velocity/ion thermal speed ratio, and other plasma parameters. Stability properties are investigated analytically for the case of cold electrons, and the local dispersion relation is solved numerically in the parameter regime of most interest for high-density plasma pinches. The results show that for all parameter regimes studied, the net effect of finite plasma beta is to reduce the maximum growth rate of the LHD instability, although the details can vary, depending on the plasma parameters. Except in the limit where the electron/ion temperature ratio tends to zero, it is found that there is a critical value of plasma beta above which the LHD instability is completely stabilized.

Davidson, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Mass Movement and Landform Degradation on the Icy Galilean Satellites: Results of the Galileo Nominal Mission

The Galileo mission has revealed remarkable evidence of mass movement and landform degradation on the icy Galilean satellites of Jupiter. Weakening of surface materials coupled with mass movement reduces the topographic relief of landforms by moving surface materials down-slope. Throughout the Galileo orbiter nominal mission we have studied all known forms of mass movement and landform degradation of the icy galilean satellites, of which Callisto, by far, displays the most degraded surface. Callisto exhibits discrete mass movements that are larger and apparently more common than seen elsewhere. Most degradation on Ganymede appears consistent with sliding or slumping, impact erosion, and regolith evolution. Sliding or slumping is also observed at very small (100 m) scale on Europa. Sputter ablation, while probably playing some role in the evolution of Ganymede's and Callisto's debris layers, appears to be less important than other processes. Sputter ablation might play a significant role on Europa only if that satellite's surface is significantly older than 10(exp 8) years, far older than crater statistics indicate. Impact erosion and regolith formation on Europa are probably minimal, as implied by the low density of small craters there. Impact erosion and regolith formation may be important on the dark terrains of Ganymede, though some surfaces on this satellite may be modified by sublimation-degradation. While impact erosion and regolith formation are expected to operate with the same vigor on Callisto as on Ganymede, most of the areas examined at high resolution on Callisto have an appearance that implies that some additional process is at work, most likely sublimation-driven landform modification and mass wasting. The extent of surface degradation ascribed to sublimation on the outer two Galilean satellites implies that an ice more volatile than H2O is probably involved.

Moore, Jeffrey M.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Benefits of a 4th Ice Class in the Simulated Radar Reflectivities of Convective Systems Using a Bulk Microphysics Scheme

Numerous cloud microphysical schemes designed for cloud and mesoscale models are currently in use, ranging from simple bulk to multi-moment, multi-class to explicit bin schemes. This study details the benefits of adding a 4th ice class (hail) to an already improved 3-class ice bulk microphysics scheme developed for the Goddard Cumulus Ensemble model based on Rutledge and Hobbs (1983,1984). Besides the addition and modification of several hail processes from Lin et al. (1983), further modifications were made to the 3-ice processes, including allowing greater ice super saturation and mitigating spurious evaporationsublimation in the saturation adjustment scheme, allowing graupelhail to become snow via vapor growth and hail to become graupel via riming, and the inclusion of a rain evaporation correction and vapor diffusivity factor. The improved 3-ice snowgraupel size-mapping schemes were adjusted to be more stable at higher mixing rations and to increase the aggregation effect for snow. A snow density mapping was also added. The new scheme was applied to an intense continental squall line and a weaker, loosely-organized continental case using three different hail intercepts. Peak simulated reflectivities agree well with radar for both the intense and weaker case and were better than earlier 3-ice versions when using a moderate and large intercept for hail, respectively. Simulated reflectivity distributions versus height were also improved versus radar in both cases compared to earlier 3-ice versions. The bin-based rain evaporation correction affected the squall line case more but did not change the overall agreement in reflectivity distributions.

bulk microphysics schemes↗

NASA NTRS1976

Effects of solar radiation on the orbits of small particles

A modification of the Robertson (1937) equations of particle motion in the presence of solar radiation is developed which allows for partial reflection of sunlight as a result of rapid and varying particle rotations caused by interaction with the solar wind. The coefficients and forces in earlier forms of the equations are compared with those in the present equations, and secular rates of change of particle orbital elements are determined. Orbital dimensions are calculated in terms of time, probable sizes and densities of meteoric and cometary particles are estimated, and times of infall to the sun are computed for a particle moving in an almost circular orbit and a particle moving in an elliptical orbit of high eccentricity. Changes in orbital elements are also determined for particles from a long-period sun-grazing comet. The results show that the time of infall to the sun from a highly eccentric orbit is substantially shorter than from a circular orbit with a radius equal to the mean distance in the eccentric orbit. The possibility is considered that the free orbital kinetic energy of particles drawn into the sun may be the energy source for the solar corona.

Lyttleton, R. A.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Understanding the Impact of Return-Current Losses on the X-Ray Emission from Solar Flares

I obtain and examine the implications of one-dimensional analytic solutions for return-current losses on an initially power-law distribution of energetic electrons with a sharp low-energy cutoff in flare plasma with classical (collisional) resistivity. These solutions show, for example, that return-current losses are not sensitive to plasma density, but are sensitive to plasma temperature and the low energy cutoff of the injected nonthermal electron distribution. A characteristic distance from the electron injection site, x(sub rc), is derived. At distances less than x(sub rc) the electron flux density is not reduced by return-current losses, but plasma heating can be substantial in this region, in the upper, coronal part of the flare loop. Before the electrons reach the collisional thick-target region of the flare loop, an injected power-law electron distribution with a low-energy cutoff maintains that structure, but with a flat energy distribution below the cutoff energy, which is now determined by the total potential drop experienced by the electrons. Modifications due to the presence of collisional losses are discussed. I compare these results with earlier analytical results and with more recent numerical simulations. Emslie's 1980 conjecture that there is a maximum integrated X-ray source brightness on the order of 10(exp -15) photons per square centimeter per second per square centimeter is examined. I find that this is not actually a maximum brightness and its value is parameter dependent, but it is nevertheless a valuable benchmark for identifying return-current losses in hard X-ray spectra. I discuss an observational approach to identifying return-current losses in flare data, including identification of a return-current "bump" in X-ray light curves at low photon energies.

Holman, Gordon D.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Plasma kinetic processes in a strong d.c. magnetic field

Recent results in the kinetic theory of a strongly magnetized plasma are surveyed. Emphasis is on the electrostatic guiding-center plasma in two dimensions, in both the fluid and 'charged rod' descriptions. The basic kinetic description of the plasma is in terms of the statistically-distributed Fourier coefficients associated with the velocity and 'enstrophy' (charge density) fields. It is a universal tendency in such media for enstrophy to flow to shorter wavelengths but for energy to flow to longer wavelengths. A consequence of the energy flow to longer wavelengths is the generation of long-range order in the form of macroscopic vortices. These kinds of structure have been called 'convection cells' and can be extraordinarily efficient in transporting particles transverse to a magnetic field. The tendency to vortex formation can be disrupted by collisions between particles. Modifications of the Fokker-Planck equation for a plasma produced by a strong dc magnetic field are considered in both two and three dimensions.

Montgomery, D.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Global Survey of the Relationship Between Cloud Droplet Size and Albedo Using ISCCP

Aerosols affect climate through direct and indirect effects. The direct effect of aerosols (e.g., sulfates) includes reflection of sunlight back toward space and for some aerosols (e.g., smoke particles), absorption in the atmosphere; both effects cool the Earth's surface. The indirect effect of aerosols refers to the modification of cloud microphysical properties, thereby affecting the radiation balance. Higher concentrations of Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) generally produce higher concentrations of cloud droplets, which are also usually assumed to lead to decreased cloud droplet sizes. The result is an increase in cloud albedo, producing a net radiative cooling, opposite to the warming caused by greenhouse gases (Charlson et al. 1992). The change in clouds that is directly induced by an increase of aerosol concentration is an increase of cloud droplet number density, N; but is is usually assumed that cloud droplet size decreases as if the water mass density Liquid Water Content (LWC) were constant. There is actually no reason why this should be the case. Shifting the cloud droplet size distribution to more numerous smaller droplets can change the relative rates of condensational and coalescence growth, leading to different LWC (e.g., Rossow 1978). Moreover, the resulting change in cloud albedo is usually ascribed to more efficient scattering by smaller droplets, when in fact it is the increase in droplet number density (assuming constant LWC) that produces the most important change in cloud albedo: e.g., holding N constant and decreasing the droplet size would actually decrease the scattering cross-section and, thus, the albedo much more than it is increased by the increased scattering efficiency.

Han, Qingyuan↗

NASA NTRS2018

PYSAT: Python Satellite Data Analysis Toolkit

A common problem in space science data analysis is combining complementary data sources that are provided and analyzed in different formats and programming languages. The Python Satellite Data Analysis Toolkit (pysat) addresses this issue by providing an open source toolkit that implements the general process of space science data analysis, from beginning to end, in an instrumentindependent manner. This toolkit uses an Instrument object that enables systematic analysis of science data from a variety of platforms within a single interface. Basic functions such as downloading, loading, and cleaning are included for all supported instruments. Common analysis routines are also included, which are instrument and data source independent. A nanokernel is used to provide instrument independence, it is attached to the Instrument object and mediates the systematic and arbitrary modification of loaded data. Pysat uses the nanokernel to improve the rigor of time series analysis, support onthefly orbit determination, and cleanly span file breaks. Pysat's functions and higherlevel scientific analysis features are validated through the use of unit testing. Further adoption by the community provides a set of scientific results produced by a common core, constituting a distributed heritage that supports the validity of the underlying processing and scientific output. These features are used to demonstrate consistency between derived electron density profiles and measured ion drifts, particularly downward ion drifts in the afternoon hours during extreme solar minimum. Pysat builds upon open source Python software that is freely available and encourages communitydriven development.

Stoneback, R.A.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Erosion and modification of SO2 ice by ion bombardment of the surface of Io

New measurements on the effect of slow ion bombardment of SO2 ice using Ar(+) in the 15-45 keV range are presented. Total yields for loss of SO2 are given along with the energy spectra of the ejected molecules and molecular fragments and information on the chemical changes induced by the ion bombardment. These data are used to estimate that the direct sputter ejection rate of sulfur into the Jovian plasma is of the order of 10 billion atoms/sq cm/s, that the erosion rate of fresh SO2 deposits due to sputtering is of the order of 0.001 cm/yr, and that a significant and possibly observable column density of SO3 can be produced in an SO2 front only for penetrating ion bombardment. Chemical activity occurs even in rather low-temperature SO2 ice bombardment by ions in the nuclear stopping region, and this activity is likely to increase with increasing temperature.

Johnson, R. E.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Computed tomographic analysis of meteorite inclusions

The feasibility of obtaining nondestructively a cross-sectional display of very dense heterogeneous rocky specimens, whether lunar, terrestrial or meteoritic, by using a fourth generation computed tomographic (CT) scanner, with modifications to the software only, is discussed. A description of the scanner, and of the experimental and analytical procedures is given. Using this technique, the interior of heterogeneous materials such as Allende can be probed nondestructively. The regions of material with high and low atomic numbers are displayed quickly; the object can then be cut to obtain for analysis just the areas of interest. A comparison of this technique with conventional industrial and medical techniques is made in terms of image resolution and density distribution display precision.

Arnold, J. R.↗