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DOE OSTI2013

NEW CONSTRAINTS ON COSMIC REIONIZATION FROM THE 2012 HUBBLE ULTRA DEEP FIELD CAMPAIGN

Understanding cosmic reionization requires the identification and characterization of early sources of hydrogen-ionizing photons. The 2012 Hubble Ultra Deep Field (UDF12) campaign has acquired the deepest infrared images with the Wide Field Camera 3 aboard Hubble Space Telescope and, for the first time, systematically explored the galaxy population deep into the era when cosmic microwave background (CMB) data indicate reionization was underway. The UDF12 campaign thus provides the best constraints to date on the abundance, luminosity distribution, and spectral properties of early star-forming galaxies. We synthesize the new UDF12 results with the most recent constraints from CMB observations to infer redshift-dependent ultraviolet (UV) luminosity densities, reionization histories, and electron scattering optical depth evolution consistent with the available data. Under reasonable assumptions about the escape fraction of hydrogen-ionizing photons and the intergalactic medium clumping factor, we find that to fully reionize the universe by redshift z {approx} 6 the population of star-forming galaxies at redshifts z {approx} 7-9 likely must extend in luminosity below the UDF12 limits to absolute UV magnitudes of M{sub UV} {approx} -13 or fainter. Moreover, low levels of star formation extending to redshifts z {approx} 15-25, as suggested by the normal UV colors of z {approx_equal} 7-8 galaxies and the smooth decline in abundance with redshift observed by UDF12 to z {approx_equal} 10, are additionally likely required to reproduce the optical depth to electron scattering inferred from CMB observations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

FINDING THE FIRST COSMIC EXPLOSIONS. II. CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVAE

Understanding the properties of Population III (Pop III) stars is prerequisite to elucidating the nature of primeval galaxies, the chemical enrichment and reionization of the early intergalactic medium, and the origin of supermassive black holes. While the primordial initial mass function (IMF) remains unknown, recent evidence from numerical simulations and stellar archaeology suggests that some Pop III stars may have had lower masses than previously thought, 15-50 M{sub Sun} in addition to 50-500 M{sub Sun }. The detection of Pop III supernovae (SNe) by JWST, WFIRST, or the TMT could directly probe the primordial IMF for the first time. We present numerical simulations of 15-40 M{sub Sun} Pop III core-collapse SNe performed with the Los Alamos radiation hydrodynamics code RAGE. We find that they will be visible in the earliest galaxies out to z {approx} 10-15, tracing their star formation rates and in some cases revealing their positions on the sky. Since the central engines of Pop III and solar-metallicity core-collapse SNe are quite similar, future detection of any Type II SNe by next-generation NIR instruments will in general be limited to this epoch.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE KINETIC SUNYAEV-ZEL'DOVICH EFFECT AS A PROBE OF THE PHYSICS OF COSMIC REIONIZATION: THE EFFECT OF SELF-REGULATED REIONIZATION

We calculate the angular power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background temperature fluctuations induced by the kinetic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (kSZ) effect from the epoch of reionization (EOR). We use detailed N-body+radiative-transfer simulations to follow inhomogeneous reionization of the intergalactic medium. For the first time, we take into account the ''self-regulation'' of reionization: star formation in low-mass dwarf galaxies (10{sup 8} M{sub Sun} {approx}< M {approx}< 10{sup 9} M{sub Sun }) or minihalos (10{sup 5} M{sub Sun} {approx}< M {approx}< 10{sup 8} M{sub Sun }) is suppressed if these halos form in the regions that were already ionized or Lyman-Werner dissociated. Some previous work suggested that the amplitude of the kSZ power spectrum from the EOR can be described by a two-parameter family: the epoch of half-ionization and the duration of reionization. However, we argue that this picture applies only to simple forms of the reionization history which are roughly symmetric about the half-ionization epoch. In self-regulated reionization, the universe begins to be ionized early, maintains a low level of ionization for an extended period, and then finishes reionization as soon as high-mass atomically cooling halos dominate. While inclusion of self-regulation affects the amplitude of the kSZ power spectrum only modestly ({approx}10%), it can change the duration of reionization by a factor of more than two. We conclude that the simple two-parameter family does not capture the effect of a physical, yet complex, reionization history caused by self-regulation. When added to the post-reionization kSZ contribution, our prediction for the total kSZ power spectrum is below the current upper bound from the South Pole Telescope. Therefore, the current upper bound on the kSZ effect from the EOR is consistent with our understanding of the physics of reionization.

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DOE OSTI2013

RELAXATION OF BLAZAR-INDUCED PAIR BEAMS IN COSMIC VOIDS

The stability properties of a low-density ultrarelativistic pair beam produced in the intergalactic medium (IGM) by multi-TeV gamma-ray photons from blazars are analyzed. The problem is relevant for probes of magnetic field in cosmic voids through gamma-ray observations. In addition, dissipation of such beams could considerably affect the thermal history of the IGM and structure formation. We use a Monte Carlo method to quantify the properties of the blazar-induced electromagnetic shower, in particular the bulk Lorentz factor and the angular spread of the pair beam generated by the shower, as a function of distance from the blazar itself. We then use linear and nonlinear kinetic theory to study the stability of the pair beam against the growth of electrostatic plasma waves, employing the Monte Carlo results for our quantitative estimates. We find that the fastest growing mode, like any perturbation mode with even a very modest component perpendicular to the beam direction, cannot be described in the reactive regime. Due to the effect of nonlinear Landau damping, which suppresses the growth of plasma oscillations, the beam relaxation timescale is found to be significantly longer than the inverse Compton loss time. Finally, density inhomogeneities associated with cosmic structure induce loss of resonance between the beam particles and plasma oscillations, strongly inhibiting their growth. We conclude that relativistic pair beams produced by blazars in the IGM are stable on timescales that are long compared with the electromagnetic cascades. There appears to be little or no effect of pair beams on the IGM.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE ESCAPE FRACTION OF IONIZING RADIATION FROM GALAXIES

The escape of ionizing radiation from galaxies plays a critical role in the evolution of gas in galaxies, and the heating and ionization history of the intergalactic medium. We present semi-analytic calculations of the escape fraction of ionizing radiation for both hydrogen and helium from galaxies ranging from primordial systems to disk-type galaxies that are not heavily dust-obscured. We consider variations in the galaxy density profile, source type, location, and spectrum, and gas overdensity/distribution factors. For sufficiently hard first-light sources, the helium ionization fronts closely track or advance beyond that of hydrogen. Key new results in this work include calculations of the escape fractions for He I and He II ionizing radiation, and the impact of partial ionization from X-rays from early active galactic nuclei or stellar clusters on the escape fractions from galaxy halos. When factoring in frequency-dependent effects, we find that X-rays play an important role in boosting the escape fractions for both hydrogen and helium, but especially for He II. We briefly discuss the implications of these results for recent observations of the He II reionization epoch at low redshifts, as well as the UV data and emission-line signatures from early galaxies anticipated from future satellite missions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

COMPOSITION OF LOW-REDSHIFT HALO GAS

Halo gas in low-z (z < 0.5) {>=}0.1 L{sub *} galaxies in high-resolution, large-scale cosmological hydrodynamic simulations is examined with respect to three components: cold, warm, and hot with temperatures of <10{sup 5}, 10{sup 5-6}, and >10{sup 6} K, respectively. Utilizing O VI {lambda}{lambda}1032, 1038 absorption lines, the warm component is compared to observations, and agreement is found with respect to the galaxy-O VI line correlation, the ratio of the O VI line incidence rate in blue to red galaxies, and the amount of O VI mass in star-forming galaxies. A detailed account of the sources of warm halo gas (stellar feedback heating, gravitational shock heating, and accretion from the intergalactic medium), inflowing and outflowing warm halo gas metallicity disparities, and their dependencies on galaxy types and environment is also presented. With the warm component securely anchored, our simulations make the following additional predictions. First, cold gas is the primary component in inner regions with its mass comprising 50% of all gas within galactocentric radius r = (30, 150) kpc in (red, blue) galaxies. Second, at r > (30, 200) kpc in (red, blue) galaxies the hot component becomes the majority. Third, the warm component is a perpetual minority, with its contribution peaking at {approx}30% at r = 100-300 kpc in blue galaxies and never exceeding 5% in red galaxies. The significant amount of cold gas in low-z early-type galaxies, which was found in simulations and in agreement with recent observations (Thom et al.), is intriguing, as is the dominance of hot gas at large radii in blue galaxies.

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DOE OSTI2013

CHEMICAL ENRICHMENT OF DAMPED Ly{alpha} SYSTEMS AS A DIRECT CONSTRAINT ON POPULATION III STAR FORMATION

Observations of damped Ly{alpha} absorbers (DLAs) can be used to measure gas-phase metallicities at large cosmological look-back times with high precision. Furthermore, relative abundances can still be measured accurately deep into the reionization epoch (z > 6) using transitions redward of Ly{alpha}, even though Gunn-Peterson absorption precludes measurement of neutral hydrogen. In this paper, we study the chemical evolution of DLAs using a model for the coupled evolution of galaxies and the intergalactic medium (IGM), which is constrained by a variety of observations. Our goal is to explore the influence of Population III stars on the abundance patterns of DLAs to determine the degree to which abundance measurements can discriminate between different Population III stellar initial mass functions (IMFs). We include effects, such as inflows onto galaxies due to cosmological accretion and outflows from galaxies due to supernova feedback. A distinct feature of our model is that it self-consistently calculates the effect of Population III star formation on the reionization of an inhomogeneous IGM, thus allowing us to calculate the thermal evolution of the IGM and implement photoionization feedback on low-mass galaxy formation. We find that if the critical metallicity of Population III to II/I transition is {approx}< 10{sup -4} Z{sub Sun }, then the cosmic Population III star formation rate drops to zero for z < 8. Nevertheless, at high redshift (z {approx} 6), chemical signatures of Population III stars remain in low-mass galaxies (halo mass {approx}< 10{sup 9} M{sub Sun }). This is because photoionization feedback suppresses star formation in these galaxies until relatively low redshift (z {approx} 10), and the chemical record of their initial generation of Population III stars is retained. We model DLAs as these low-mass galaxies, and assign to them a mass-dependent H I absorption cross-section in order to predict the expected distribution of DLA abundance ratios. We find that these distributions are anchored toward abundance ratios set by Population II supernova yields, but they exhibit a tail which depends significantly on the Population III IMF for z > 5. Thus, a sample of DLA metallicity and relative abundance measurements at high redshift holds the promise to constrain Population III enrichment and the Population III IMF. We find that a sample of just 10 DLAs with relative abundances measured to an accuracy of 0.1 dex is sufficient to constrain the Population III IMF at 4{sigma}. These constraints may prove stronger than other probes of Population III enrichment, such as metal-poor stars and individual metal-poor DLAs. Our results provide a global picture of the thermal, ionization, and chemical evolution of the universe, and have the potential to rule out certain Population III scenarios.

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DOE OSTI2013

A LYMAN BREAK GALAXY IN THE EPOCH OF REIONIZATION FROM HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE GRISM SPECTROSCOPY

We present observations of a luminous galaxy at z = 6.573-the end of the reionization epoch-which has been spectroscopically confirmed twice. The first spectroscopic confirmation comes from slitless Hubble Space Telescope Advanced Camera for Surveys grism spectra from the PEARS survey (Probing Evolution And Reionization Spectroscopically), which show a dramatic continuum break in the spectrum at rest frame 1216 A. The second confirmation is done with Keck + DEIMOS. The continuum is not clearly detected with ground-based spectra, but high wavelength resolution enables the Ly{alpha} emission line profile to be determined. We compare the line profile to composite line profiles at z = 4.5. The Ly{alpha} line profile shows no signature of a damping wing attenuation, confirming that the intergalactic gas is ionized at z = 6.57. Spectra of Lyman breaks at yet higher redshifts will be possible using comparably deep observations with IR-sensitive grisms, even at redshifts where Ly{alpha} is too attenuated by the neutral intergalactic medium to be detectable using traditional spectroscopy from the ground.

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X-RAY ABSORPTION OF HIGH-REDSHIFT QUASARS

The soft X-ray photoelectric absorption of high-z quasars has been known for two decades, but has no unambiguous astrophysical context. We construct the largest sample to date of 58 high-redshift quasars (z > 0.45) selected from the XMM-Newton archive based on a high photon count criterion (>1800). We measure the optical depth {tau} at 0.5 keV and find that 43% of the quasars show significant absorption. We aim to find which physical parameters of the quasars, e.g., redshift, radio luminosity, radio loudness, or X-ray luminosity, drive their observed absorption. We compare the absorption behavior with redshift with the pattern expected if the diffuse intergalactic medium (IGM) is responsible for the observed absorption. We also compare the absorption with a comparison sample of gamma-ray burst (GRB) X-ray afterglows. Although the z > 2 quasar opacity is consistent with diffuse IGM absorption, many intermediate-z (0.45 < z < 2) quasars are not sufficiently absorbed for this scenario, and are appreciably less absorbed than GRBs. Only 10/37 quasars at z < 2 are absorbed, and only 5/30 radio-quiet quasars are absorbed. We find a weak correlation between {tau} and z, and an even weaker correlation between {tau} and radio luminosity. These findings lead to the conclusion that although a diffuse IGM origin for the quasar absorption is unlikely, the optical depth does seem to increase with redshift, roughly as (1 + z){sup 2.2{+-}0.6}, tending to {tau} Almost-Equal-To 0.4 at high redshifts, similar to the high-z GRBs. This result can be explained by an ionized and clumpy IGM at z < 2, and a cold, diffuse IGM at higher redshift. If, conversely, the absorption occurs at the quasar, and owing to the steep L{sub x} {proportional_to}(1 + z){sup 7.1{+-}0.5} correlation in the present sample, the host column density scales as N{sub H}{proportional_to}L{sub x}{sup 0.7{+-}0.1}.

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THE SUPERNOVA THAT DESTROYED A PROTOGALAXY: PROMPT CHEMICAL ENRICHMENT AND SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE GROWTH

The first primitive galaxies formed from accretion and mergers by z {approx} 15, and were primarily responsible for cosmological reionization and the chemical enrichment of the early cosmos. But a few of these galaxies may have formed in the presence of strong Lyman-Werner UV fluxes that sterilized them of H{sub 2}, preventing them from forming stars or expelling heavy elements into the intergalactic medium prior to assembly. At masses of 10{sup 8} M{sub Sun} and virial temperatures of 10{sup 4} K, these halos began to rapidly cool by atomic lines, perhaps forming 10{sup 4}-10{sup 6} M{sub Sun} Pop III stars and, later, the seeds of supermassive black holes. We have modeled the explosion of a supermassive Pop III star in the dense core of a line-cooled protogalaxy with the ZEUS-MP code. We find that the supernova (SN) expands to a radius of {approx}1 kpc, briefly engulfing the entire galaxy, but then collapses back into the potential well of the dark matter. Fallback fully mixes the interior of the protogalaxy with metals, igniting a violent starburst and fueling the rapid growth of a massive black hole at its center. The starburst would populate the protogalaxy with stars in greater numbers and at higher metallicities than in more slowly evolving, nearby halos. The SN remnant becomes a strong synchrotron source that can be observed with eVLA and eMERLIN and has a unique signature that easily distinguishes it from less energetic SN remnants. Such explosions, and their attendant starbursts, may well have marked the birthplaces of supermassive black holes on the sky.

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DOE OSTI2013

DISSECTING THE PROPERTIES OF OPTICALLY THICK HYDROGEN AT THE PEAK OF COSMIC STAR FORMATION HISTORY

We present the results of a blind survey of Lyman limit systems (LLSs) detected in absorption against 105 quasars at z ∼ 3 using the blue sensitive MagE spectrograph at the Magellan Clay telescope. By searching for Lyman limit absorption in the wavelength range λ ∼ 3000-4000 Å, we measure the number of LLSs per unit redshift l(z) = 1.21 ± 0.28 at z ∼ 2.8. Using a stacking analysis, we further estimate the mean free path of ionizing photons in the z ∼ 3 universe λ{sub mfp}{sup 912} = 100 ± 29 h{sub 70.4}{sup -1} Mpc. Combined with our LLS survey, we conclude that systems with log N{sub HI} ≥ 17.5 cm{sup –2} contribute only ∼40% to the observed mean free path at these redshifts. Furthermore, with the aid of photoionization modeling, we infer that a population of ionized and metal poor systems is likely required to reproduce the metal line strengths observed in a composite spectrum of 20 LLSs with log N{sub HI} ∼ 17.5-19 cm{sup –2} at z ∼ 2.6-3.0. Finally, with a simple toy model, we deduce that gas in the halos of galaxies can alone account for the totality of LLSs at z ∼< 3, but a progressively higher contribution from the intergalactic medium is required beyond z ∼ 3.5. We also show how the weakly evolving number of LLSs per unit redshift at z ∼< 3 can be modeled either by requiring that the spatial extent of the circumgalactic medium is redshift invariant in the last ∼10 Gyr of cosmic evolution or by postulating that LLSs arise in halos that are rare fluctuations in the density field at each redshift.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE BIGGEST EXPLOSIONS IN THE UNIVERSE

Supermassive primordial stars are expected to form in a small fraction of massive protogalaxies in the early universe, and are generally conceived of as the progenitors of the seeds of supermassive black holes (BHs). Supermassive stars with masses of ∼55, 000 M{sub ☉}, however, have been found to explode and completely disrupt in a supernova (SN) with an energy of up to ∼10{sup 55} erg instead of collapsing to a BH. Such events, ∼10, 000 times more energetic than typical SNe today, would be among the biggest explosions in the history of the universe. Here we present a simulation of such a SN in two stages. Using the RAGE radiation hydrodynamics code, we first evolve the explosion from an early stage through the breakout of the shock from the surface of the star until the blast wave has propagated out to several parsecs from the explosion site, which lies deep within an atomic cooling dark matter (DM) halo at z ≅ 15. Then, using the GADGET cosmological hydrodynamics code, we evolve the explosion out to several kiloparsecs from the explosion site, far into the low-density intergalactic medium. The host DM halo, with a total mass of 4 × 10{sup 7} M{sub ☉}, much more massive than typical primordial star-forming halos, is completely evacuated of high-density gas after ∼< 10 Myr, although dense metal-enriched gas recollapses into the halo, where it will likely form second-generation stars with metallicities of ≅ 0.05 Z{sub ☉} after ∼> 70 Myr. The chemical signature of supermassive star explosions may be found in such long-lived second-generation stars today.

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THE NATURE OF Lyα BLOBS: POWERED BY EXTREME STARBURSTS

We present a new model for the observed Lyα blobs (LABs) within the context of the standard cold dark matter model. In this model, LABs are the most massive halos with the strongest clustering (protoclusters) undergoing extreme starbursts in the high-z universe. Aided by calculations of detailed radiative transfer of Lyα photons through ultrahigh resolution (159 pc), large-scale (≥30 Mpc) adaptive mesh refinement cosmological hydrodynamic simulations with galaxy formation, this model is shown to be able to, for the first time, reproduce simultaneously the global Lyα luminosity function and the luminosity-size relation of the observed LABs. Physically, a combination of dust attenuation of Lyα photons within galaxies, clustering of galaxies, and the complex propagation of Lyα photons through the circumgalactic and intergalactic medium gives rise to the large sizes and the irregular isophotal shapes of LABs that are frequently observed. A generic and unique prediction of this model is that there should be strong far-infrared (FIR) sources within each LAB with the most luminous FIR source likely representing the gravitational center of the protocluster, not necessarily the apparent center of the Lyα emission of the LAB or the most luminous optical source. Upcoming ALMA observations should unambiguously test this prediction. If verified, LABs will provide very valuable laboratories for studying the formation of galaxies in the most overdense regions of the universe at a time when the global star formation was the most vigorous.

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SHOCK-ENHANCED C{sup +} EMISSION AND THE DETECTION OF H{sub 2}O FROM THE STEPHAN'S QUINTET GROUP-WIDE SHOCK USING HERSCHEL

We present the first Herschel spectroscopic detections of the [O I] 63 μm and [C II] 158 μm fine-structure transitions, and a single para-H{sub 2}O line from the 35 × 15 kpc{sup 2} shocked intergalactic filament in Stephan's Quintet. The filament is believed to have been formed when a high-speed intruder to the group collided with a clumpy intergroup gas. Observations with the PACS spectrometer provide evidence for broad (>1000 km s{sup –1}) luminous [C II] line profiles, as well as fainter [O I] 63 μm emission. SPIRE FTS observations reveal water emission from the p-H{sub 2}O (1{sub 11}-0{sub 00}) transition at several positions in the filament, but no other molecular lines. The H{sub 2}O line is narrow and may be associated with denser intermediate-velocity gas experiencing the strongest shock-heating. The [C II]/PAH{sub tot} and [C II]/FIR ratios are too large to be explained by normal photo-electric heating in photodissociation regions. H II region excitation or X-ray/cosmic-ray heating can also be ruled out. The observations lead to the conclusion that a large fraction the molecular gas is diffuse and warm. We propose that the [C II], [O I], and warm H{sub 2} line emission is powered by a turbulent cascade in which kinetic energy from the galaxy collision with the intergalactic medium is dissipated to small scales and low velocities, via shocks and turbulent eddies. Low-velocity magnetic shocks can help explain both the [C II]/[O I] ratio, and the relatively high [C II]/H{sub 2} ratios observed. The discovery that [C II] emission can be enhanced, in large-scale turbulent regions in collisional environments, has implications for the interpretation of [C II] emission in high-z galaxies.

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FINDING THE FIRST COSMIC EXPLOSIONS. I. PAIR-INSTABILITY SUPERNOVAE

The first stars are the key to the formation of primitive galaxies, early cosmological reionization and chemical enrichment, and the origin of supermassive black holes. Unfortunately, in spite of their extreme luminosities, individual Population III (Pop III) stars will likely remain beyond the reach of direct observation for decades to come. However, their properties could be revealed by their supernova explosions, which may soon be detected by a new generation of near-IR (NIR) observatories such as JWST and WFIRST. We present light curves and spectra for Pop III pair-instability supernovae calculated with the Los Alamos radiation hydrodynamics code RAGE. Our numerical simulations account for the interaction of the blast with realistic circumstellar envelopes, the opacity of the envelope, and Lyman absorption by the neutral intergalactic medium at high redshift, all of which are crucial to computing the NIR signatures of the first cosmic explosions. We find that JWST will detect pair-instability supernovae out to z ∼> 30, WFIRST will detect them in all-sky surveys out to z ∼ 15-20, and LSST and Pan-STARRS will find them at z ∼< 7-8. The discovery of these ancient explosions will probe the first stellar populations and reveal the existence of primitive galaxies that might not otherwise have been detected.

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THE BIGGEST EXPLOSIONS IN THE UNIVERSE. II

One of the leading contenders for the origin of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at z ∼> 7 is catastrophic baryon collapse in atomically cooled halos at z ∼ 15. In this scenario, a few protogalaxies form in the presence of strong Lyman-Werner UV backgrounds that quench H{sub 2} formation in their constituent halos, preventing them from forming stars or blowing heavy elements into the intergalactic medium prior to formation. At masses of 10{sup 8} M{sub ☉} and virial temperatures of 10{sup 4} K, gas in these halos rapidly cools by H lines, in some cases forming 10{sup 4}-10{sup 6} M{sub ☉} Population III stars and, a short time later, the seeds of SMBHs. Instead of collapsing directly to black holes (BHs), some of these stars died in the most energetic thermonuclear explosions in the universe. We have modeled the explosions of such stars in the dense cores of line-cooled protogalaxies in the presence of cosmological flows. In stark contrast to the explosions in diffuse regions in previous simulations, these supernovae briefly engulf the protogalaxy, but then collapse back into its dark matter potential. Fallback drives turbulence that efficiently distributes metals throughout the interior of the halo and fuels the rapid growth of nascent BHs at its center. The accompanying starburst and X-ray emission from these line-cooled galaxies easily distinguish them from more slowly evolving neighbors and might reveal the birthplaces of SMBHs on the sky.

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Discovery of three z > 6.5 quasars in the VISTA kilo-degree infrared galaxy (VIKING) survey

Studying quasars at the highest redshifts can constrain models of galaxy and black hole formation, and it also probes the intergalactic medium in the early universe. Optical surveys have to date discovered more than 60 quasars up to z ≅ 6.4, a limit set by the use of the z-band and CCD detectors. Only one z ≳ 6.4 quasar has been discovered, namely the z = 7.08 quasar ULAS J1120+0641, using near-infrared imaging. Here we report the discovery of three new z ≳ 6.4 quasars in 332 deg{sup 2} of the Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy Kilo-degree Infrared Galaxy (VIKING) survey, thus extending the number from 1 to 4. The newly discovered quasars have redshifts of z = 6.60, 6.75, and 6.89. The absolute magnitudes are between –26.0 and –25.5, 0.6-1.1 mag fainter than ULAS J1120+0641. Near-infrared spectroscopy revealed the Mg II emission line in all three objects. The quasars are powered by black holes with masses of ∼(1-2) × 10{sup 9} M {sub ☉}. In our probed redshift range of 6.44 < z < 7.44 we can set a lower limit on the space density of supermassive black holes of ρ(M {sub BH} > 10{sup 9} M {sub ☉}) > 1.1 × 10{sup –9} Mpc{sup –3}. The discovery of three quasars in our survey area is consistent with the z = 6 quasar luminosity function when extrapolated to z ∼ 7. We do not find evidence for a steeper decline in the space density of quasars with increasing redshift from z = 6 to z = 7.

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Narrowband Lyman-continuum imaging of galaxies at z ∼ 2.85

We present results from a survey for z ∼ 2.85 Lyman-continuum (LyC) emission in the HS1549+1933 field and place constraints on the amount of ionizing radiation escaping from star-forming galaxies. Using a custom narrowband filter (NB3420) tuned to wavelengths just below the Lyman limit at z ≥ 2.82, we probe the LyC spectral region of 49 Lyman break galaxies (LBGs) and 91 Lyα emitters (LAEs) spectroscopically confirmed at z ≥ 2.82. Four LBGs and seven LAEs are detected in NB3420. Using V-band data probing the rest-frame nonionizing UV, we observe that many NB3420-detected galaxies exhibit spatial offsets between their LyC and nonionizing UV emission and are characterized by extremely blue NB3420–V colors, corresponding to low ratios of nonionizing to ionizing radiation (F {sub UV}/F {sub LyC}) that are in tension with current stellar population synthesis models. We measure average values of (F {sub UV}/F {sub LyC}) for our LBG and LAE samples, correcting for foreground galaxy contamination and H I absorption in the intergalactic medium. We find (F{sub UV}/F{sub LyC}){sub corr}{sup LBG}=82±45 and (F{sub UV}/F{sub LyC}){sub corr}{sup LAE}=7.4±3.6. These flux density ratios correspond, respectively, to relative LyC escape fractions of f{sub esc,} {sub rel}{sup LBG}=5%--8% and f{sub esc,} {sub rel}{sup LAE}=18%--49%, absolute LyC escape fractions of f{sub esc}{sup LBG}=1%--2% and f{sub esc}{sup LAE}=5%--15%, and a comoving LyC emissivity from star-forming galaxies of 8.8-15.0 × 10{sup 24} erg s{sup –1} Hz{sup –1} Mpc{sup –3}. In order to study the differential properties of galaxies with and without LyC detections, we analyze narrowband Lyα imaging and rest-frame near-infrared imaging, finding that while LAEs with LyC detections have lower Lyα equivalent widths on average, there is no substantial difference in the rest-frame near-infrared colors of LBGs or LAEs with and without LyC detections. These preliminary results are consistent with an orientation-dependent model where LyC emission escapes through cleared paths in a patchy interstellar medium.

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