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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 289 records · Page 16
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

EM-Enhanced HyPOR Loop for Fast Fusion Cycles

Vacuum pumps are the heart of a fusion energy facility – fusion power cannot be generated without them. Nevertheless, the vacuum technology needed to operate a viable fuel cycle for a compact fusion power plant does not exist. Commercial vacuum technology offers the best solution to this challenge, but a pump oil recycling and detritiation system is necessary. Conventional oil detritiation processes have only been developed to deal with legacy waste and are too slow and destructive to the oil. Further, post hoc detritiation strategies are intrinsically inefficient. Our approach is to rethink the challenge holistically by designing the pumping fluid and tritium extraction system in an integrated manner to achieve an innovative solution. By selecting an oil for the specific task of pumping tritium and then designing our catalytic system to selectively target the tritium-bearing functional groups, an effective detritiation system (hydrocarbon pump oil recycling, HyPOR, loop) for fusion power plants can be obtained. The project demonstrated a HyPOR loop process that can selectively remove heavier hydrogen isotopes from pump oil, reaching the target of 99.5 % removal, with an uptake of less than 0.01% of tritium throughput, while also purifying the oil of radiation-induced damage. The recycled oil retained its pumping characteristics over 7 recycles and gamma irradiation over 30 MGy. By meeting these targets, the project enable a reduction in pump operational costs from $\$$14.5M/year to $\$$103k/year (>140× reduction), reducing pump electric power consumption from 2.8 MW to 0.25 MW (>10× reduction), and reducing in-process tritium inventory from 2.03 kg to 0.48 kg (>4× reduction).

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Blockchain Empowered Provenance Framework for Sensor Identity Management and Data Flow Security in Fossil-based Power Plants

The overall goals of this project are divided into 3 important phases. First, a peer-to-peer SCADA network is to be established where identity profile of sensors from fossil-power plants will be stored in an immutable manner in order to verify data flow integrity in real time. Second, it is aimed to develop a Blockchain-based provenance platform to audit equipment operations along with data and process integrity violations. In this phase, various operational rules will be incorporated in the ledger on behalf of the operating sensor so its abnormal use can be easily detected. In addition, it is aimed to achieve provenance when the rate of transactions is exceedingly high, thus enabling to design a scalable provenance scheme that can work in real time when number of data collecting points or sensor units increase in fossil-based power plants. Finally, a working testbed will be developed to integrate the Blockchain platform with sensor-based fossil power plant comprising of Remote Terminal Units (RTU) and SCADA devices. Using multiple Raspberry-PIs mimicking the role of RTUs that are interfaced with multiple sensors devices will be deployed to serve as a critical component of fossil power plant and the performance metrics such as throughput, latency, bootstrapping time, etc., will be evaluated on the testbed.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Autonomous Restoration of Networked Microgrids Using Communication-Free Smart Sensing and Protection Units

Here this paper presents autonomous restoration of networked microgrids using distributed energy resources (DERs), inverter-based resources (IBRs) in general, and controllable assets of intelligence without communication to achieve a extremely resilient power system restoration. The main innovation of this work lies in use of real-time smart sensing and decision making that enable autonomous recombination of islanded microgrids, which are individually black-started by local grid-forming (GFM) inverter units. The smart circuit breakers (SCBs) designed and demonstrated here play critical roles in the restoration process to achieve autonomy; the autonomous restoration scheme is not pre-engineered and may be subject to encounter overloading, live or downed segments as the boundary of the microgrids dynamically expands without prior knowledge and only with local measurement. We demonstrate autonomous microgrid restoration both in simulation of a modified IEEE 13-bus system, and in a hardware testbed comprising 24 GFM-IBRs and 6-SCBs, depicting several scenarios to evaluate their functionalities and interoperability. This work validates high potential of extremely resilient microgrid using novel approaches for inverter-based bottom-up system restoration in a communication-free paradigm.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Communities in energy transition: exploring best practices and decision support tools to provide equitable outcomes

Abstract The U.S. coal industry has been in a state of decline for the past decade, a trend ushered by flat electricity demand, increased regulatory pressure, and market competition from cost-competitive clean energy sources. The receding economic viability of the coal industry has been acutely felt by the communities with immediate economic ties to coal-fired generation. With the energy transition underway, the question of how to engage communities as stakeholders in the decision-making process and address their needs through an equitable and just transition remains unresolved. To that end, this paper explores the economic, environmental, and social challenges presented by the energy transition at the community level, highlighting four case studies from transitioning coal-dependent communities across the United States to ultimately identify best practices in coal plant decommissioning processes. This paper weaves these community-identified best practices into two support tools—a decommissioning checklist and a redevelopment decision-making framework—that can be used to engage communities in the power plant retirement decision, the site reclamation phase, and eventual redevelopment of the site and revitalization of the surrounding community.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Hydrogen from low-density polyethylene via nonthermal plasma: Effects of energy density and process parameters

Nonthermal plasma processes are promising for the modular valorization of plastic waste, especially into hydrogen and carbon materials, due to their high intensity, lack of reliance on catalysts or consumables, and suitability to be directly powered by electricity. We investigate the production of hydrogen from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as a plastic waste model using streamer Dielectric Barrier Discharge (sDBD) plasma in nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. Here, we examine the effects of process energy density (energy input per unit of feedstock mass), feedstock mass, and plasma intensity (electric voltage) on plasma properties, hydrogen yield and energy efficiency via gas chromatography, optical emission spectroscopy, and electrical diagnostics, together with reactor-scale and nonlinear electric circuit modeling. The characteristic temperature of free electrons in the sDBD plasma is approximately 15000 K (1.3 eV), and that of gas species 10 times lower, demonstrating strong thermal non-equilibrium that can lead to molecular bond scission via charged species impact rather than direct heating. Experimental results show that higher energy density leads to greater hydrogen production and diminishing energy efficiency, and that higher plasma intensity and larger feedstock mass lead to greater hydrogen yield due to higher plasma temperatures and enhanced energy fluxes to the feedstock.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Harvesting Reactor Pressure Vessel Beltline Material from the Decommissioned Zion Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1

The decommissioning of the Zion Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) provided a unique opportunity to harvest and study service-aged reactor pressure vessel (RPV) beltline materials. This work, conducted through the U.S. Department of Energy’s Light Water Reactor Sustainability (LWRS) Program, aims to improve the understanding of radiation-induced embrittlement to support extended nuclear plant operations. Material segments containing the Linde 80 flux, wire heat 72105 (WF-70) beltline weld and the A533B Heat B7835-1 base metal, obtained from the intermediate shell region with a peak fluence of 0.7 × 10 19 n/cm 2 (E > 1.0 MeV), were extracted, cut into blocks, and machined into test specimens for mechanical and microstructural characterization. The segmentation process involved oxy-propane torch-cutting, followed by precision machining using wire saws and electrical discharge machining (EDM). A chemical composition analysis confirmed the expected variations in alloying elements, with copper levels being notably higher in the weld metal. The harvested specimens enable a detailed evaluation of through-wall embrittlement gradients, a comparison with the existing surveillance data, and the validation of predictive embrittlement models. This study provides critical data for assessing long-term reactor vessel integrity, informing aging-management strategies, and supporting regulatory decisions to extend the life of nuclear plants. This article is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled, “Current Status of the Characterization of RPV Materials Harvested from the Decommissioned Zion Unit 1 Nuclear Power Plant”, PVP2017-65090, which was accepted and presented at the ASME 2017 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Waikoloa, HI, USA, 16–20 July 2017.

harvesting beltline material↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterization of coal extracts and their performances as binder for new carbon-based structural units

Coal production and usage have been declining in the past decade due to the transition to renewable energies, environmental regulations to reduce environmental pollution due to direct coal combustion from coal-fired power stations, and administrative policies. This downturn has created tremendous challenges for the coal industry, and many states rely on revenue from coal mining. Developing new valorization routes with high coal demand is essential and using coal-derived materials to make engineered products does offer an eco-friendly, attractive, and value-added use. This paper presents a brief introduction to the extraction process to derive coal deposits, extracts, and residuals (CDERs) and a comprehensive characterization analysis to determine the suitability of CDERs as binders to produce an innovative construction material named the carbon-based structural unit (CSU). CDERs are used to prepare the CSU with or without using mesophase pitch (MP) as binders and selected CDERs are heat-treated and pressure-heat-treated to improve their binding capabilities. The performances of the CSU specimens are evaluated based on compressive strength, density, and thermal conductivity. The CSU specimens mixed with distilled residue (DR) to pyrolysis char (PC) ratio of 1:2 achieve a compressive strength of 54.85 MPa, which is higher than the compressive strength of 30 MPa of normal concrete. The CSU specimens with deposit (De) and tetralin insoluble (TI) require the addition of MP to obtain compressive strengths greater than 30 MPa. Furthermore, these CSU specimens possess a relatively low density of about 1 g/cm 3 and low thermal conductivity of less than 0.25 W/m.K.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

IM3 Projected US Data Center Locations

IM3 Projected US Data Center Locations This dataset contains model projections of new data center facilities in the contiguous United States (CONUS) through 2035 using the CERF – Data Centers model. Data center locations are modeled across four data center electricity demand growth scenarios (low, moderate, high, higher) and five market gravity scenarios (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%). Projected locations are intended to be regional representations of feasible siting locations in the future to assess potential grid and water stress impacts. The data center load growth scenarios correspond with the rates outlined in EPRI (2024) and include 3.71%, 5%, 10%, and 15% annual growth of electricity demand for data centers from 2023 values in 37 states across the CONUS. Market gravity scenarios correspond to the relative importance of proximity to data center markets or high population areas compared to locational cost in the siting algorithm. 0% market gravity means that siting decisions were entirely determined by the locational cost in each feasible location. 100% market gravity means that only market proximity was considered when siting. Other scenarios have weight placed on both components where total weight always equals 100%. Locational cost is dependent on facility cooling type and corresponding electricity cost, taxes, and other factors. Facility cooling type is spatially determined where high water stress and/or areas with high summer wet bulb temperatures are assumed to operate with mechanical cooling for a higher fraction of the year rather than evaporative cooling. Feasible data center siting areas are based on geospatial suitability raster data developed with open-source information. The following areas are excluded from siting: Areas within 300 m of a federal airport runway Waterbodies Areas with slope >16% Areas susceptible to sinkholes High coastal or inland flood risk areas Local, state, and federal parks, leisure areas, and cemeteries Areas >2 km away from electric substations Areas >5 km away from a municipal water supplier service area Areas >2 km away from high-speed fiber provider service territory Protected Areas Database of the United States (PAD-US) areas Railroads, major roadways, and minor roadways Military areas and training grounds NLCD developed lands Areas >0.8 km (0.5 miles) from NLCD developed lands Because we use open-source information, proprietary information that can influence siting decisions such as individual tax agreements with cities, detailed fiber line connectivity, electric grid power capacity agreements, and others, are not currently accounted for in the modeling process. Using specific building locations and footprints in the dataset for local planning purposes is not advised. Technical Information Geospatial data is provided in geojson format using the Albers Equal Area Conic (ESRI:102003) coordinate reference system. The datasets contain the following parameters: id - unique identification number within given scenario file growth_scenario – data center demand growth scenario market_gravity_weight – market gravity weight scenario (%) region – name of region (i.e., US State) total_cost_million_usd – locational siting cost ($million) campus_size_square_ft – total land acquired for data center facility (square ft) data_center_it_power_mw – IT power of data center facility (MW) mechanical_cooling_frac – fraction of year when data center uses mechanical cooling system water_cooling_frac– fraction of year when data center uses evaporative cooling system cooling_energy_demand_mwh – total annual facility energy demand for cooling (MWh) cooling_water_demand_mgy – total annual facility water demand for cooling (MG) cooling_water_consumption_mgy – total annual facility water consumed (MG) normalized_locational_cost – normalized total locational cost score for location normalized_gravity_score – normalized market gravity score for location weighted_siting_score – total weighted siting score of locational cost and gravity score geometry – polygon geometry of facility Acknowledgment IM3 is a multi-institutional effort led by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and supported by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science as part of research in MultiSector Dynamics, Earth and Environmental Systems Modeling Program. License This data is made available under a CCBY4.0 License Disclaimer This material was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor the United States Department of Energy, nor the Contractor, nor any or their employees, nor any jurisdiction or organization that has cooperated in the development of these materials, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness or any information, apparatus, product, software, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof, or Battelle Memorial Institute. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORYoperated byBATTELLEfor theUNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF ENERGYunder Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830

Mongird, Kendall (ORCID:0000000328077088)↗
DOE OSTI2022

Closed Loop Pumped Storage Hydropower Resource Assessment of the United States

The data includes a geospatial and spreadsheet representation of a resource analysis for closed loop pumped storage systems across the Continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. The data includes energy storage potential, water volume, distance from source to storage, hydraulic head, dollars per kilowatt of storage, and transmission spurline cost for each pumped storage hydropower (PHS) reservoir. Each reservoir represented in this dataset is represented on potential 10 hour storage duration PSH system comprised of two reservoirs. Units of measure are laid out in the dataset. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) represents the bulk of the United States' current energy storage capacity: 23 gigawatts (GW) of the 24 GW national total (Denholm et al. 2021). This capacity was largely built between 1960 and 1990. PSH is a mature and proven method of energy storage with competitive round-trip efficiency and long life spans. These qualities make PSH a very attractive potential solution to energy storage needs, particularly for longer-duration storage (8 hours or more); such storage will be crucial to bridge gaps in electricity production as variable wind and solar production continue to comprise an ever-larger portion of the United States' energy portfolio. This study seeks to better understand the technical potential for PSH development in the United States by developing a national-scale resource assessment for closed-loop PSH. For more information, please refer to the Closed Loop Pumped Storage Hydropower Resource Assessment for the United States linked in the resources.

Array↗
DOE OSTI2024

Grid connection barriers to renewable energy deployment in the United States

Bulk-power grid connection is an emerging bottleneck to the entry of wind, solar, and storage but has been understudied due to a lack of data. We create and analyze two novel interconnection datasets with more than 38,000 project-level observations that provide new information documenting interconnection challenges in the United States. Active grid connection requests are more than double the total installed capacity of the US power plant fleet (2,600 vs. 1,280 GW). The time required to secure a connection has increased by 70% over the last decade, and withdrawal rates remain high at 80%, suggesting a constrained transmission system that jeopardizes energy transition targets. Wide distributions of interconnection costs indicate the inherent uncertainty of the interconnection process. Interconnection requests that identify large transmission upgrades tend to withdraw from the process. These findings suggest the need for interconnection reforms, tighter links between long-term transmission planning and project-level interconnection processes, and more interconnection outcome transparency.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

A virtual Frisch-grid geometry-based CZT gamma detector for in-field radioisotope identification

Here, we present a Virtual Frisch-Grid geometry-based CZT gamma detector developed for identifying different radioisotopes over an energy range from a few keV up to 2 MeV, and useful for efficient characterization of CZT crystals. The detector is built with a 3 x 3 matrix of CZT crystals, each measuring approximately 6 mm x 6 mm x 15 mm. The charge generated within the sensor’s active volume is read out via an anode connected directly to the AVG3_Dev integrated circuit. A current signal induced by charge drift is collected on side pads of the crystals, enabling reconstruction of a 3D interaction position. This paper discusses the design, development, and performance of the standalone, mobile detector system, which integrates the AVG3_Dev readout IC developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory, a high-speed FPGA-based with per-channel digital signal processing, and embedded system capabilities. The device is compact, battery-powered, and supports wireless data streaming, making it suitable for field operations for radioisotope identification.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Density Functional Tight-Binding Enables Tractable Studies of Quantum Plasmonics

Routine investigations of plasmonic phenomena at the quantum level present a formidable computational challenge due to the large system sizes and ultrafast time scales involved. This Feature Article highlights the use of density functional tight-binding (DFTB), particularly its real-time time-dependent formulation (RT-TDDFTB), as a tractable approach to study plasmonic nanostructures from a quantum mechanical purview. We begin by outlining the theoretical framework and limitations of DFTB, emphasizing its efficiency in modeling systems with thousands of atoms over picosecond time scales. Applications of RT-TDDFTB are then explored in the context of optical absorption, nonlinear harmonic generation, and plasmon-mediated photocatalysis. We demonstrate how DFTB can reconcile classical and quantum descriptions of plasmonic behavior, capturing key phenomena such as size-dependent plasmon shifts and plasmon coupling in nanoparticle assemblies. Lastly, we showcase DFTB’s ability to model hot carrier generation and reaction dynamics in plasmon-driven H2 dissociation, underscoring its potential to model photocatalytic processes. Collectively, these studies establish DFTB as a powerful, yet computationally efficient tool to probe the emergent physics of materials at the limits of space and time.

Electrical energy↗
DOE OSTI2025

An Open-Access Repository of Synchrophasor Data Quality Examples: Curation and Example Applications

Synchrophasor measurements are critical in providing wide-area situational awareness to power system operators. However, data artifacts may be introduced due to various issues such as loss of communication, loss of GPS signal, internal clock error, and vendor-specific implementation of phasor estimation algorithms. Tools designed to provide actionable insights from synchrophasor data, hence, must be designed to be robust to these data quality issues. In this work, two years of synchrophasor data sourced from multiple electric utilities in the United States were analyzed to identify examples of data quality problems. These examples were then labeled and published in the Grid Event Signature Library, a publicly available repository of power system measurements hosted by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. This paper describes the data curation process, and illustrates two application use cases where the dataset can be valuable to the research community. In the first use case, a random forest classifier is trained to distinguish power system disturbance signatures from data anomalies introduced in synchrophasor measurements due to clock errors. The second use case studies the impact of data quality issues on an example synchrophasor application (specifically, event start time determination). The choice of data quality problems investigated is informed by the examples in the repository curated in this work.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

xSDK: Building an ecosystem of highly efficient math libraries for exascale

Current efforts to build increasingly powerful computer architectures are opening up new avenues for more complex and higher fidelity simulations coupled with data analytics and learning, leading to new scientific insights and deeper understanding. At one extreme, exascale computers will be much faster than previous computer generations (performing 10 18 operations per second—that is, 1,000 times faster than petascale). To achieve these performance improvements, computer architectures are becoming increasingly complex, with deep memory hierarchies, very high node and core counts, and heterogeneous features such as graphics processing units (GPUs). Such architectural changes impact the full breadth of computing scales, as heterogeneity pervades even current-generation laptops, workstations, and moderate-sized clusters. While emerging advanced architectures provide unprecedented opportunities, they also present significant challenges for developers of scientific applications, such as multiphysics and multiscale codes, who must adapt their software to handle disruptive changes in architectures and new programming models that have not yet stabilized. Developers must consider increasing concurrency while reducing communication and synchronization, and other complexities such as the potential for using mixed precision to leverage the compute power available in low-precision tensor cores. On one hand, developers must implement new scientific capabilities, which in turn increase code complexity. On the other hand, the codes must be ported to new architectures, requiring the inclusion of new programming models and the restructuring of code to achieve good performance. Addressing these issues is beyond the capability of any single person or team—leading to the need for collaboration among many teams, who encapsulate their expertise in reusable software and work together to create sustainable software ecosystems.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2022

A Low-Power 1 Gb/s Line Driver with Configurable Pre-Emphasis for Lossy Transmission Lines

A line driver with configurable pre-emphasis is implemented in a 65 nm CMOS process. The driver utilizes a three-tap feed-forward equalization (FFE) architecture. The relative delays between the taps are selectable in increments of 1/16th of the unit interval (UI) via an 8-stage delay-locked loop (DLL) and digital interpolator. It is also possible to control the output amplitude and source impedance for each tap via a programmable array of eight source-series terminated (SST) drivers. The entire design consumes 9 mW from a 1.2 V supply at 1 Gb/s.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

A ranking methodology for the coupling of pressurized water nuclear reactors and molten salt thermal energy storage

Thermal energy storage (TES) systems are a proposed solution to electricity market demand fluctuations and can be coupled to nuclear power plants to enable load following. Here, this work focuses on developing a methodology for evaluating potential designs for integrating a TES system into an existing pressurized water nuclear power plant. The proposed ranking methodology allows a group of experts to postulate and weigh designs based on ranking criteria derived from literature. The methodology developed in this study can aid in the final selection of a TES design for an existing nuclear power plant. The same process could be used to analyze other TES and nuclear reactor designs. The determined optimum design from this methodology was to place the TES system after the steam generator and to utilize the steam generated from the nuclear power plant to heat a molten salt TES unit. Another conclusion of this research was that human bias is prevalent during design selection, and actions such as standardized ranking criteria and large groups of experts should be used to minimize this error.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Process Design and Techno-Economic Analysis of the Modular Staged Pressurized Oxy-Combustion (SPOC) Power Plant for Biomass

This work describes the process design and techno-economic analysis (TEA) of the modular SPOC power plant for biomass firing and coal-biomass co-firing. Two Rankine cycles were considered: a supercritical steam cycle (242 bar, 593°C, 593°C) with 550 MWe net output and a subcritical cycle (166 bar, 566°C, 566°C) with 200 MWe net output. For both cases, 95% carbon capture was modeled, and hybrid poplar biomass was chosen to generate carbon-negative power. In addition, the supercritical 500 MWe case included a 25% biomass co-firing (carbon neutral) case. For both cycles, a 100% Powder River Basin coal firing case was used for comparison purposes. In the SPOC process, oxygen is produced via a cryogenic air separation unit (ASU) and the heat generated from the compression of air is integrated into the steam cycle and utilized for boiler feed water pre-heating. Unique to the SPOC process, the boilers are pressurized and arranged in a series-parallel configuration, with minimized flue gas recirculation. The flue gas is cooled and scrubbed in the direct-contact cooler (DCC) column, and the moisture in the flue gas is condensed, leaving the bottom of the DCC at a sufficiently high temperature such that it can be used for boiler feed water pre-heating, improving plant thermal efficiency. Following drying and purification, CO2 in the flue gas is at the purity required for storage or utilization. The performance data were obtained from process modelling via Aspen Plus®. The stream data from Aspen Plus® were used as an input for the AACE Class 5 cost study. Ultimately, the capital costs, Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE), and cost of CO2 captured and avoided were obtained. The HHV efficiency of the carbon negative 550 MWe supercritical SPOC case (34.8%) was clearly above those reported by NETL for the BECCS baseline cases of supercritical pulverized coal with capture (B12B, 31.5%) and the 49% biomass co-firing case with capture (PA3, 29.2%). The HHV efficiency of the carbon-negative subcritical plant is also higher than the subcritical baseline PC plant with capture (case B11B.95) presented by NETL (32% vs 29.7%). The LCOE for the SPOC 100% biomass case was similar to the LCOE for the BECCS 49% biomass with carbon capture case ($147/MWh), and the SPOC carbon neutral case LCOE was lower ($110/MWh) than the cost for the NETL baseline SC coal firing case with 90% carbon capture ($114/MWh).

Magalhaes, Duarte↗