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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 289 records · Page 16
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Constraining the impact of chlorine as a neutron absorber in next-gen fast reactor designs

The role of chlorine as a neutron poison and as a seed for producing radioactive waste in nuclear systems has driven a renewed interest to improve its nuclear data uncertainties. Additionally, basic and applied science programs that use CLYC (Cs 2 LiYCl 6 :Ce) detectors for neutron spectroscopy and monitoring are also very sensitive to any change in chlorine nuclear data for simulations of the detector response. In this work, sensitivities relevant for these different applications are addressed through simulations of the efficiency of CLYC detectors in a fast fission spectrum when applying new chlorine nuclear data as input. These simulations are validated by an experimental measurement using CLYC detectors coupled to an ionization chamber loaded with a 252 Cf spontaneous fission source. The results are then used to obtain the first reliable direct measurement of the 35 Cl(n,p 0 ) and summed Cl(n,p+n,α) fission spectrum average cross sections, found to be 54.7(32) and 105.0(98) mb, respectively. The results are within uncertainty of calculated fission spectrum averaged cross sections based on recently re-evaluated chlorine nuclear data, which confirm recent impact studies performed for the Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment. Meanwhile, there currently exists only one published criticality benchmark experiment that is sufficiently sensitive to chlorine nuclear data. Discrepancies are found with this set of criticality safety benchmarks, which are more sensitive to thermal and epithermal neutron energies than the energies, above 100 keV, tested in this current work. Hence, there is still a need to re-evaluate the chlorine nuclear data at lower energies to assess these discrepancies. Interpretation of the data from future “faster” criticality benchmarks, which are needed for next-gen fast reactor designs, benefit from the improved constraints on the chlorine nuclear data validated in this work.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Compact single-shot soft X-ray photon spectrometer for free-electron laser diagnostics

The photon spectrum from free-electron laser (FEL) light sources offers valuable information in time-resolved experiments and machine optimization in the spectral and temporal domains. We have developed a compact single-shot photon spectrometer to diagnose soft X-ray spectra. The spectrometer consists of an array of off-axis Fresnel zone plates (FZP) that act as transmission-imaging gratings, a Ce:YAG scintillator, and a microscope objective to image the scintillation target onto a two-dimensional imaging detector. This spectrometer operates in segmented energy ranges which covers tens of electronvolts for each absorption edge associated with several atomic constituents: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon. The spectrometer’s performance is demonstrated at a repetition rate of 120 Hz, but our detection scheme can be easily extended to 200 kHz spectral collection by employing a fast complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) line-scan camera to detect the light from the scintillator. This compact photon spectrometer provides an opportunity for monitoring the spectrum downstream of an endstation in a limited space environment with sub-electronvolt energy resolution.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2020

A method to fuse multiphysics waveforms and improve predictive explosion detection: theory, experiment and performance

Natural and human-made sources of transient energy often emit multiple geophysical signatures that include mechanical and electromagnetic waveforms. We present a constructive method to fuse and evaluate statistics that we derive from such multiphysics waveforms that improves our capability to detect small, near-ground explosions over similar methods that consume single signature waveforms. Our method advances Fisher's Combined Probability Test (Fisher's Method) to operate under both hypotheses of a binary test on noisy data and provide researchers with the density functions required to forecast the ability of Fisher's Method to screen fused explosion signatures from noise. We apply this method against 12 d, multisignature explosion and noise records to show (1) that a fused multiphysics waveform statistic that combines radio, acoustic and seismic waveform data can identify explosions roughly 0.8 magnitude units lower than an acoustic emission, STA/LTA detector for the same detection probability and (2) that we can quantitatively predict how this fused, multiphysics statistic performs with Fisher's Method. Our work thereby offers a baseline method for predictive waveform fusion that supports multiphenomenological explosion monitoring (multiPEM) and is applicable to any binary testing problem in observational geophysics.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Mu2e DAQ and slow control systems

The Mu2e experiment at the Fermilab Muon Campus will search for the coherent neutrinoless conversion of a muon into an electron in the feld of an aluminum nucleus with a sensitivity improvement by a factor of 10,000 over existing limits. The Mu2e Trigger and Data Acquisition System (TDAQ) uses otsdaq as the online Data Acquisition System (DAQ) solution. Developed at Fermilab, otsdaq integrates both the artdaq DAQ and the art analysis frameworks for event transfer, fltering, and processing. otsdaq is an online DAQ software suite with a focus on fexibility and scalability and provides a multiuser, web-based, interface accessible through a web browser. The data stream from the detector subsystems is read by a software flter algorithm that selects events which are combined with the data fux coming from a Cosmic Ray Veto System. The Detector Control System (DCS) has been developed using the Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System (EPICS) open source platform for monitoring, controlling, alarming, and archiving. The DCS System has been integrated into otsdaq. A prototype of the TDAQ and the DCS systems has been built at Fermilab’s Feynman Computing Center. In this paper, we report on the progress of the integration of this prototype in the online otsdaq software.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
NASA NTRS1983

Design and performance of the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment II (SAGE II) instrument

Design and performance data are analyzed for the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment II (SAGE II) instrument, which has been developed for the NASA Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS). SAGE II is designed to monitor globally, from 70 degrees S to 70 degrees N latitude, the vertical distribution of stratospheric aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and nitrogen dioxide by measuring the extinction of solar radiation through the earth's atmosphere during the ERBS observatory solar occultations. A flat scanning mirror reflects solar radiation into a Cassegrain type telescope, which forms a solar image on the entrance slit of a grating spectrometer. The instantaneous-field-of-view of the SAGE II is scanned along the vertical solar diameter by the elevation scan mirror. The optical system is contained within an azimuth gimbal which tracks the solar radiometric centroid during the data event, while the spectrometer isolates seven spectral wavelengths from 0.385-1.02 micrometers. The seven channels of the spectrometer use silicon photodiode dedectors operated in the photovoltaic mode. The detector outputs are multiplexed into a serial data stream for readout by the ERBS telemetry system, with each output being sampled 64 times per second and digitized to 12 bit resolution.

Zaun, N. H.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Utilizing the Dynamic Networks Data Processing and Analysis Experiment (DNE18) to Establish Methodologies for the Comparison of Automatic Infrasonic Signal Detectors

The Dynamic Networks Experiment 2018 (DNE18) was a collaborative effort between Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) designed to evaluate methodologies for multi-modal data ingestion and processing. One component of this virtual experiment was a quantitative assessment of current capabilities for infrasound data processing, beginning with the establishment of a baseline for infrasound signal detection. To produce such baselines, SNL and LANL exploited a common dataset of infrasound data recorded across a regional network in Utah from December 2010 through February 2011. We utilize two automated signal detectors, the Adaptive F-Detector (AFD) and the Multivariate Adaptive Learning Detector (MALD) to produce automated signal detection catalogs and an analyst-produced catalog. Comparisons indicate that automatic detectors may be able to identify small amplitude, low SNR events that cannot be identified by analyst review. We document detector performance in terms of precision and recall, demonstrating that the AFD is more precise, but the MALD has higher recall. We use a synthetic dataset of signals embedded in pink noise in order to highlight shortcomings in assessing detection algorithms for low signal to noise ratio signals which are commonly of interest to the nuclear monitoring community. For comparisons utilizing the synthetic dataset, the AFD has higher recall while precision is equal for both detectors. These results indicate that both detectors perform well across a variety of background noise environments; however, both detectors fail to identify repetitive, short duration signals arriving from similar backazimuths. These failures represent specific scenarios that could be targeted for further detector development.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Variational autoencoders for at-source data reduction and anomaly detection in high energy particle detectors

Detectors in next-generation high-energy physics experiments face several daunting requirements, such as high data rates, damaging radiation exposure, and stringent constraints on power, space, and latency. To address these challenges, machine learning in readout electronics can be leveraged for smart detector designs, enabling intelligent inference and data reduction at-source. Variational autoencoders (VAEs) offer a variety of benefits for front-end readout; an on-sensor encoder can perform efficient lossy data compression while simultaneously providing a latent space representation that can be used for anomaly detection. Results are presented from low-latency and resource-efficient VAEs for front-end data processing in a futuristic silicon pixel detector. Encoder-based data compression is found to preserve good performance of off-detector analysis while significantly reducing the off-detector data rate as compared to a similarly sized data filtering approach. Furthermore, the latent space information is found to be a useful discriminator in the context of real-time sensor defect monitoring. Together, these results highlight the multifaceted utility of autoencoder-based front-end readout schemes and motivate their consideration in future detector designs.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2020

Trigger-DAQ and Slow Controls Systems in the Mu2e Experiment

The muon campus program at Fermilab includes the Mu2e experiment that will search for a charged-lepton flavor violating processes where a negative muon converts into an electron in the field of an aluminum nucleus, improving by four orders of magnitude the search sensitivity reached so far. Mu2e's Trigger and Data Acquisition System (TDAQ) uses otsdaq as its solution. Developed at Fermilab, otsdaq uses the artdaq DAQ framework and art analysis framework, under the-hood, for event transfer, filtering, and processing. otsdaq is an online DAQ software suite with a focus on flexibility and scalability, while providing a multi-user, web-based, interface accessible through the Chrome or Firefox web browser. The detector Read Out Controller (ROC), from the tracker and calorimeter, stream out zero-suppressed data continuously to the Data Transfer Controller (DTC). Data is then read over the PCIe bus to a software filter algorithm that selects events which are finally combined with the data flux that comes froma Cosmic Ray Ve to System (CRV). A Detector Control System (DCS) for monitoring, controlling, alarming, and archiving has been developed using the Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System (EPICS) Open Source Platform. The DCS System has also been itegrated into otsdaq. The installation of the TDAQ and the DCS systems in the Mu2e building is planned for 2021-2022, and a prototype has been built at Fermilab's Feynman Computing Center. We report here on the developments and achievements of the integration of Mu2e's DCS system into the online otsdaq software.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
NASA NTRS2007

Comparison of Integrated Radiation Transport Models with TEPC Measurements for the Average Quality Factors in Spaceflights

The purpose of this work is to test our theoretical model for the interpretation of radiation data measured in space. During the space missions astronauts are exposed to the complex field of radiation type and kinetic energies from galactic cosmic rays (GCR), trapped protons, and sometimes solar particle events (SPEs). The tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) is a simple time-dependent approach for radiation monitoring for astronauts on board the International Space Station. Another and a newer approach to Microdosimetry is the use of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology launched on the MidSTAR-1 mission in low Earth orbit (LEO). In the radiation protection practice, the average quality factor of a radiation field is defined as a function of linear energy transfer (LET), Q(sub ave)(LET). However, TEPC measures the average quality factor as a function of the lineal energy y, Q(sub ave)(y), defined as the average energy deposition in a volume divided by the average chord length of the volume. Lineal energy, y, deviates from LET due to energy straggling, delta-ray escape or entry, and nuclear fragments produced in the detector volume. Monte Carlo track structure simulation was employed to obtain the response of a TEPC irradiated with charged particle for an equivalent site diameter of 1 micron of wall-less counter. The calculated data of the energy absorption in the wall-less counter were compiled for various y values for several ion types at various discrete projectile energy levels. For the simulation of TEPC response from the mixed radiation environments inside a spacecraft, such as, Space Shuttle and International Space Station, the complete microdosimetric TEPC response, f( y, E, Z), were calculated with the Monte Carlo theoretical results by using the first order Lagrangian interpolation for a monovariate function at a given y value (y = 0.1 keV/micron 5000 keV/micron) at any projectile energy level (E = 0.01 MeV/u to 50,000 MeV/u) of each specific radiation type (Z = 1 to 28). Because the anomalous response has been observed at large event sizes in the experiment due to the escape of energy out of sensitive volume by delta-rays and the entry of delta-rays from the high-density wall into the low-density gas-volume cavity, Monte Carlo simulation was also made for the response of a walled-TEPC with wall thickness 2 mm and density 1 g/cm(exp 3). The radius of cavity was set to 6.35 mm and a gas density 7.874 x 10(exp -5) g/cm(exp 3). The response of the walled- and the wall-less counters were compared. The average quality factor Q(sub ave)(y) for trapped protons on STS-89 demonstrated the good agreement between the model calculations and flight TEPC data as shown. Using an integrated space radiation model (this includes the transport codes HZETRN and BRYNTRN, the quantum nuclear interaction model QMSFRG) and the resultant response distribution functions of walled-TEPC from Monte-Carlo track simulations, we compared model calculations with walled-TEPC measurements from NASA missions in LEO and made predictions for the lunar and the Mars missions. The Q(sub ave)(y) values for the trapped or the solar protons ranged from 1.9-2.5. This over-estimates the Qave(LET) values which ranged from 1.4-1.6. Both quantities increase with shield thickness due to nuclear fragmentation. The Q(sub ave)(LET) for the complete GCR spectra was found to be 3.5-4.5, while flight TEPCs measured 2.9-3.4 for Q(sub ave)(y). The GCR values are decreasing with the shield thickness. Our analysis for a proper interpretation of data supports the use of TEPCs for monitoring space radiation environment.

Kim, Myung-Hee Y.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Long-term microparticle flux variability indicated by comparison of Interplanetary Dust Experiment (IDE) timed impacts for LDEF's first year in orbit with impact data for the entire 5.77-year orbital lifetime

The electronic sensors of the Interplanetary Dust Experiment (IDE) recorded precise impact times and approximate directions for submicron to approximately 100 micron size particles on all six primary sides of the spacecraft for the first 346 days of the LDEF orbital mission. Previously-reported analyses of the timed impact data have established their spatio-temporal features, including the demonstration that a preponderance of the particles in this regime are orbital debris and that a large fraction of the debris particles are encountered in megameter-size clouds. Short-term fluxes within such clouds can rise several orders of magnitude above the long-term average. These unexpectedly large short-term variations in debris flux raise the question of how representative an indication of the multi-year average flux is given by the nearly one year of timed data. One of the goals of the IDE was to conduct an optical survey of impact sites on detectors that remained active during the entire LDEF mission, to obtain full-mission fluxes. We present here the comparisons and contrasts among the new IDE optical survey impact data, the IDE first-year timed impact data, and impact data from other LDEF micrometeoroid and debris experiments. The following observations are reported: (1) the 5.77 year long-term integrated microparticle impact fluxes recorded by IDE detectors matched the integrated impact fluxes measured by other LDEF investigators for the same period; (2) IDE integrated microparticle impact fluxes varied by factors from 0.5 to 8.3 for LDEF days 1-346, 347-2106 and 1-2106 (5.77 years) on rows 3 (trailing edge, or West), 6 (South side), 12 (North side), and the Earth and Space ends; and (3) IDE integrated microparticle impact fluxes varied less than 3 percent for LDEF days 1-346, 347-2106 and 1-2106 (5.77 years) on row 9 (leading edge, or East). These results give further evidence of the accuracy and internal consistency of the recorded IDE impact data. This leads to the further conclusion that the utility of long-term ratios for impacts on various sides of a stabilized satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) is extremely limited. These observations and their consequences highlight the need for continuous, real time monitoring of the dynamic microparticle environment in LEO.

Simon, Charles G.↗
DOE OSTI2023

ESnet/JLab FPGA Accelerated Transport

To increase the science rate for high data rates/volumes, Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (JLab) has partnered with Energy Sciences Network (ESnet) to define an edge to data center traffic shaping / steering transport capability featuring data event aware network shaping and forwarding. The keystone of this ESnet+JLab FPGA Accelerated Transport (EJFAT) is the joint development of an AI/ML directed dynamic compute work Load Balancer (LB) of UDP streamed data. The LB is a suite consisting of a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) executing the dynamically configurable, low fixed latency LB data plane featuring real-time packet redirection and high throughput, and a control plane running on the FPGA host computer that monitors network and compute farm telemetry in order to make dynamic AI/ML guided decisions for destination compute host redirection/load balancing and destination resource provisioning. The LB provides for three-tier horizontal scaling across LB suites, core compute hosts, and CPUs within a host. The LB effectively provides seamless integration of edge/core computing to support direct experimental data processing for immediate use by JLab science programs and others such as the EIC as well as data centers of the future requiring high throughput and low latency for both hot and cooled data for both running experiment data acquisition systems and data center use cases.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

RadLab and the Environmental Data Application Dashboard: Graphical and Programming Interfaces for Interrogation of Space Telemetry Data

Sensors on the International Space Station (ISS) and multiple spacecraft elsewhere in Earth orbit and in deep space continuously monitor and collect environmental data, transmitting this information back to Earth. These data include ionizing radiation and, on the ISS, CO2, relative humidity levels, and temperature, and are of great importance to space biology research. Ionizing radiation in particular has been established in ground-based experiments as being correlated with increased risk of carcinogenesis and cardiovascular and neurological effects. Looking ahead to future long duration crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit, the ability to study how factors including CO2 levels, light cycle, temperature modulate the response to ionizing radiation and microgravity is essential. To date, access to these data has been fragmented across space agencies, spacecraft, and databases. To address this issue, NASA’s Open Science Data Repository (osdr.nasa.gov) has developed two Web applications: the Environmental Data Application (EDA) and a radiation-specific RadLab. Each consists of an API (application programming interface) and an associated GUI (graphical user interface) that provide single points of access to the data. To date, OSDR has focused on the sensors from payloads and radiation detectors located on the ISS. The Web applications process telemetry information and associated data, such as spacecraft location and orientation, from multiple international databases. The applications’ request syntax enables users to interrogate these data by craft, sensor type, time range, radiation type (galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events, the contribution of the South Atlantic Anomaly), facilitating arbitrary comparisons of original source data at varying time resolutions. The applications provide programmatic access for use in computational pipelines and GUIs for data visualization and exploration, making these data FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable), complementing the biological data contained in OSDR, and providing the space science community with a valuable resource for scientific analyses.

radiation↗
DOE OSTI2024

Slow control and TDAQ systems installation and tests in the Mu2e experiment

The Mu2e experiment at Fermilab will attempt to detect a coherent neutrinoless conversion of a muon into an electron in the field of an aluminum nucleus, with a sensitivity that is 10,000 times greater than existing limits. The Mu2e trigger and data acquisition system (TDAQ) uses the otsdaqframework as its online Data Acquisition System (DAQ) solution. Developed at Fermilab, otsdaq integrates several components, such as an artdaq-based DAQ, an art-based event processing, and an EPICS-based detector control system (DCS), and provides a uniform multi-user interface toits components through a web browser. The data streams from the Mu2e tracker and calorimeter are handled by the artdaq-based DAQ and processed by a one-level software trigger implemented within the art framework. Events accepted by the trigger have their data combined, post-trigger, with the separately read-out data from the Mu2e Cosmic Ray Veto system. The foundation of Mu2e DCS, EPICS, an Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System, is an open-source platform for monitoring, controlling, alarming, and archiving. Over the last three years, a prototype ofthe TDAQ and DCS systems has been built and tested at Fermilab’s Feynman Computing Center.Currently, the production system installation is underway. At the end, this work presents a brief update on the installation of racks and DAQ hardware.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
NASA NTRS1992

Cosmic ray particles with different LET values under various thicknesses of shielding in low altitude orbits: calculations and Cosmos-2044 measurements

Fluxes of cosmic ray particles with different LET values were measured on board the Cosmos-2044 biosatellite under various thicknesses of shielding by stacks of CR-39 and nitrocellulose plastic nuclear track detectors (mounted outside the satellite). The component composition of the particles detected under shieldings of 0.1-2.5 g cm-2 is verified by comparing experimental data with the results of model simulations of the fluxes of galactic cosmic ray particles and of radiation belt protons.

NASA Discipline Radiation Health↗
DOE OSTI2022

Status of the data acquisition, trigger, and slow control systems of the Mu2e experiment at Fermilab

The Mu2e experiment at the Fermilab will search for a coherent neutrinoless conversion of a muon into an electron in the field of an aluminum nucleus with a sensitivity improvement by a factor of 10,000 over existing limits. In this work, the Mu2e Trigger and Data Acquisition System (TDAQ) uses otsdaq framework as the online Data Acquisition System (DAQ) solution. Developed at Fermilab, otsdaq integrates several framework components — an artdaq-based DAQ, an art-based event processing, and an EPICS-based detector control system (DCS), and provides a uniform multi-user interface to its components through a web browser. Data streams from the Mu2e tracker and calorimeter are handled by the artdaq-based DAQ and processed by a one-level software trigger implemented within the art framework. Events accepted by the trigger have their data combined, post-trigger, with the separately read out data from the Mu2e Cosmic Ray Veto system. Foundation of the Mu2e DCS, EPICS – an Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System – is an open-source platform for monitoring, controlling, alarming, and archiving. A prototype of the TDAQ and the DCS systems has been built and tested over the last three years at Fermilab’s Feynman Computing Center, and now the production system installation is underway. This work presents their status and focus on the installation plans and procedures for racks, workstations, network switches, gateway computers, DAQ hardware, slow controls implementation, and testing.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Wideband precision stabilization of the -18.6kV retarding voltage for the KATRIN spectrometer

The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) measures the effective electron anti-neutrino mass with an unprecedented design sensitivity of 0.2 eV (90 % C.L.). In this experiment, the energy spectrum of beta electrons near the tritium decay endpoint is analyzed with a highly accurate spectrometer. To reach the KATRIN sensitivity target, the retarding voltage of this spectrometer must be stable to the ppm (1 × 10 -6 ) level and well known on various time scales (μs up to months), for values around -18.6 kV. A custom-designed high-voltage regulation system mitigates the impact of interference sources in the absence of a closed electric shield around the large spectrometer vessel. In this article, we describe the regulation system and its integration into the KATRIN setup. Independent monitoring methods demonstrate a stability within 2 ppm, exceeding KATRIN's specifications.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Alpha/beta-gated gamma–gamma spectroscopy of mixed fission products for trace analysis

This experiment demonstrated that some hard-to-detect fission products can be quantified directly from mixed fission product samples using advanced radio-emission spectroscopy techniques. A gamma/gamma coincidence detector was combined with a custom liquid scintillation counter to evaluate the benefits of alpha and beta coincident and anti-coincident analysis of mixed fission product samples. Reduction factors in the minimum detectable activity (MDA) relative to traditional gamma counting were quantified for a set of radionuclides. For isotopes like 91Y, 144Ce, 147Nd, and 153Sm MDA reductions of factors of 1-2 were observed using optimized beta thresholds. Using beta anti-coincidence counting reductions of factors 3-5 were observed for isotopes like 89Sr, 95mNb, 115Cd, and 137Cs and factors of 5-7 for isotopes like 235U using alpha coincidence counting. The selectivity of gamma/gamma coincidence and reduction in backgrounds using beta gating were also demonstrated with 136Cs and 153Sm. The improvements observed in the detection sensitivity of fission products and actinides achieved by combining time-correlated radiation signatures is significant and of value to applications such as nuclear fission physics, environmental monitoring for nuclear waste, reactor accidental releases, and nuclear forensics.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗