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NASA NTRS2015

Remote Sensing of Salinity and Overview of Results from Aquarius

Aquarius is a combined active/passive microwave (L-band) instrument designed to map the salinity of global oceans from space. The specific goal of Aquarius is to monitor the seasonal and interannual variation of the large scale features of the sea surface salinity (SSS) field of the open ocean (i.e. away from land). The instrumentation has been designed to provide monthly maps with a spatial resolution of 150 km and an accuracy of 0.2 psu

Microwave Remote Sensing↗

DOE OSTI2017

Determining Salinity Recharge Time for Deep Borehole Disposal - 17480

It is generally accepted that the borehole above the disposal zone of a deep borehole disposal must be sealed 'completely' and 'permanently'. By completely it is meant that the seal zone overall must not allow fluids to flow up through it more readily than they could through the surrounding geological barrier. By permanently it is meant that the seal(s) must maintain their function(s) for long enough to satisfy the safety case which could be in excess of 100,000 years. However, designing seals to meet these exacting requirements may be a case of over-engineering because the perturbations in the salinity gradients and density stratification of the groundwater created in and around the borehole during the drilling and operational phases of the borehole would be transient. Darcy flow of groundwater and diffusional flows will re-establish the salinity gradient which is one of the main barriers to the upward flow of fluid through the borehole and surrounding rock, restoring the natural barrier and making the engineered seals redundant. In this paper we address the question of the timescale over which this recharge can be expected to take place. Our methodology involves establishing a mathematical model whose solution gives the time taken for an initial pressure disturbance to reach a steady state and the migration rates of brines resulting from this pressure field. We discuss the model, its assumptions and the solutions, both analytical and numerical. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2020

An Improved Model For Determining Salinity Recharge Time for Deep Borehole Disposal - 20405

In a previous publication (K. P. Travis, D. Burley and F. G. F. Gibb, WM2017 Conference, Phoenix Arizona paper no. 17480) we introduced a numerical model to estimate the time it would take for a pressure perturbation to subside following its creation from the construction of a deep geological borehole in water-saturated rock. The model was based on the notion of a point source of momentum - a solution of the time-dependent pressure-diffusion equation. Using the model, we estimated that it would take on the order of 10 k years for physical equilibrium to become re-established following the sinking of a 5 km borehole in granite. The significance of such a model is that it places an upper bound on the lifetime required of a borehole sealing system - a necessary input to a borehole post-closure safety case assessment. No engineered sealing system has ever been devised which is capable of retaining its sealing properties for 10 half-lives of long-lived radioisotopes in spent fuel or high-level waste. One of the key advantages of disposing of nuclear waste via Deep Borehole Disposal (DBD) is the natural sealing provided by density stratified groundwater. Upon sinking of a borehole, and subsequent filling with fresh water, brine or drilling mud, this natural barrier may be temporarily damaged. Over time, fresh brine from the far-field will flow towards or away from the hole (driven by a pressure gradient) and will eventually re-establish the original salinity gradient. It follows that the engineered seals need last only as long as the time required for this salinity gradient to reset itself. One of the limitations of our previous model was the use of a static boundary condition on the borehole wall. The model used a boundary pressure which varied quadratically with depth (arising from differences between the pressure of a column of fresh water in the borehole and that of a column of brine in the host rock). However as brine replaces fresh water in the borehole (driven by a pressure gradient), the boundary function must change with time. We now introduce an improved model which takes this time dependent boundary condition into account. The model also takes into account the time taken for a mixture of brine and fresh water to re-establish chemical equilibrium through the process of diffusion. The paper contains the mathematical details of our new iterative model as well as results showing the time taken to reach steady state, and concentration profiles for the components of the brine-filled borehole as a function of time together with a discussion on the implications of the results for developing a post-closure safety assessment for DBD. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2018

Sugar yield and composition of tubers from Jerusalem Artichoke ( Helianthus tuberosus ) irrigated with saline waters

Abstract Currently, major biofuel crops are also food crops that demand fertile soils and good‐quality water. Jerusalem artichoke ( Helianthus tuberosus , Asteraceae) produces high tonnage of tubers that are rich in sugars, mainly in the form of inulin. In this study, plants of the cultivar “White Fuseau” grown under five salinity levels were evaluated for tuber yield. Results indicated that this cultivar is moderately salt‐tolerant if the goal is tuber production. Hydraulic pressings of the tubers produced juice that contained 15% (wet weight) or 55% (dry weight) free sugars, with 70% of these in the form of inulin and the rest as fructose, sucrose, and glucose. Importantly, salinity did not affect the total free sugar or inulin content of the tubers. Tubers were composed of about 12% dry washed bagasse (wet weight) or 44% (dry matter basis) and bagasse retained such high quantities of free sugars after pressing that washing was required for complete sugar recovery. Chemical composition analysis of tuber bagasse suggested that it had low lignin content (11–13 wt%), and its structural sugar composition was similar to chicory root bagasse. Because of the high hemicellulose and pectin content of the bagasse, adding xylanase and pectinase to cellulase substantially improved sugar yields from enzymatic hydrolysis compared to at the same protein loading as cellulase alone. In addition to the high total sugar yield of tuber, these first findings on the sugar and lignin content and enzymatic hydrolysis of tuber bagasse can lead to low‐cost production of ethanol for transportation fuels.

Bhagia, Samarthya↗

DOE OSTI2015

Laponite® and Laponite®‐PEO hydrogels with enhanced elasticity in phosphate‐buffered saline

Hydrogels of the synthetic clay Laponite® and Laponite®‐poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) have long been studied as model systems to understand fundamental aspects of colloidal disks and colloid‐polymer systems. More recently, these systems have been explored for a variety of biomedical applications. However, there is limited information in the literature on the fundamental properties of Laponite and Laponite‐polymer gels at pH < 9. Here, we report the rheological behavior of Laponite and Laponite‐PEO systems at biologically relevant conditions (e.g. physiological pH and ionic strength) and examine the effect of phosphate‐buffered saline on the properties of the gel. Our results show that the elastic modulus of both Laponite and Laponite‐PEO gels increases dramatically, in some cases by one order of magnitude or more, after immersing gels in phosphate‐buffered saline. This may be due to an enhanced edge–face interaction between particles in buffered solutions, which would promote a long‐lasting network structure of clay particles. These results are relevant to the design of clay‐polymer gels and nanocomposites hydrogels for biomaterials applications. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Liu, Xiao↗

DOE OSTI2016

Flowing fluid electrical conductivity logging of a deep borehole during and following drilling: estimation of transmissivity, water salinity and hydraulic head of conductive zones

Flowing fluid electrical conductivity (FFEC) logging is a hydrogeologic testing method that is usually conducted in an existing borehole. However, for the 2,500-m deep COSC-1 borehole, drilled at Åre, central Sweden, it was done within the drilling period during a scheduled 1-day break, thus having a negligible impact on the drilling schedule, yet providing important information on depths of hydraulically conductive zones and their transmissivities and salinities. In this paper, we present a reanalysis of this set of data together with a new FFEC logging data set obtained soon after drilling was completed, also over a period of 1 day, but with a different pumping rate and water-level drawdown. Their joint analysis not only results in better estimates of transmissivity and salinity in the conducting fractures intercepted by the borehole, but also yields the hydraulic head values of these fractures, an important piece of information for the understanding of hydraulic structure of the subsurface. Two additional FFEC logging tests were done about 1 year later, and are used to confirm and refine this analysis. Results show that from 250 to 2,000 m depths, there are seven distinct hydraulically conductive zones with different hydraulic heads and low transmissivity values. For the final test, conducted with a much smaller water-level drawdown, inflow ceased from some of the conductive zones, confirming that their hydraulic heads are below the hydraulic head measured in the wellbore under non-pumped conditions. Lastly, the challenges accompanying 1-day FFEC logging are summarized, along with lessons learned in addressing them.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2019

Removal of Fat Components in High TDS Leather Wastewater by Saline-Tolerant Lipase-Assisted Nanoporous-Activated Carbon

The present investigation was carried out for the degradation of fatty components in high TDS containing wastewater (soak liquor) discharged from leather industry, and the degradation was achieved by saline-tolerant lipase-immobilized functionalized nanoporous-activated carbon (STLNPAC). The lipase was extracted from the halophilic organism, Bacillus cereus. The optimum conditions for lipase production such as time, 60 h; temperature, 50 °C; pH, 10; and substrate concentration, 2.5% (w/v) were determined through response surface methodology (RSM). The functionalization of NPAC was done by ethylenediamine/glutaraldehyde covalent interaction technique followed by the immobilization of saline-tolerant lipase onto FNPAC. The functional properties of STLNPAC were analyzed through instrumentation techniques such as TGA-DSC, FT-IR, XRD, and SEM images. The lipid content of soak liquor was removed by > 99% at HRT of 60 min using STLNPAC-packed bed reactor. The efficiency was evaluated by using UV-visible and FT-IR spectroscopic analyses. The degradation of lipids was best obeyed by pseudo first-order rate kinetics, and the rate constant was found to be 1.6 × 10{sup −3} min{sup −1}. The biodegradability index of soak liquor was increased from 0.322 to 0.426, highly favorable for the complete removal of organic components in subsequent operations.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Genomic adaptations of the green alga Dunaliella salina to life under high salinity

Life in high salinity environments poses challenges to cells in a variety of ways: maintenance of ion homeostasis and nutrient acquisition, often while concomitantly enduring saturating irradiances. Dunaliella salina has an exceptional ability to thrive even in saturated brine solutions. This ability has made it a model organism for studying responses to abiotic stress factors. Here we describe the occurrence of unique gene families, expansion of gene families, or gene losses that might be linked to osmoadaptive strategies. We discovered multiple unique genes coding for several of the homologous superfamily of the Ser-Thr-rich glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol-anchored membrane family and of the glycolipid 2-alpha-mannosyltransferase family, suggesting that such components on the cell surface are essential to life in high salt. Gene expansion was found in families that participate in sensing of abiotic stress and signal transduction in plants. One example is the patched family of the Sonic Hedgehog receptor proteins, supporting a previous hypothesis that plasma membrane sterols are important for sensing changes in salinities in D. salina. We also investigated genome-based capabilities regarding glycerol metabolism and present an extensive map for core carbon metabolism. We postulate that a second broader glycerol cycle exists that also connects to photorespiration, thus extending the previously described glycerol cycle. Further genome-based analysis of isoprenoid and carotenoid metabolism revealed duplications of genes for 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS) and phytoene synthase (PSY), with the second gene copy of each enzyme being clustered together. Moreover, we identified two genes predicted to code for a prokaryotic-type phytoene desaturase (CRTI), indicating that D. salina may have eukaryotic and prokaryotic elements comprising its carotenoid biosynthesis pathways. In brief, our genomic data provide the basis for further gene discoveries regarding sensing abiotic stress, the metabolism of this halophilic alga, and its potential in biotechnological applications.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Elongation affinity, activation barrier, and stability of Aβ42 oligomers/fibrils in physiological saline

Amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides, Aβ40 and the more neurotoxic Aβ42, have been the subject of many research efforts for Alzheimer's disease. In two recent independent investigations, the atomistic structure of Aβ42 fibril has been clearly established in the S-shaped conformation consisting of three β-sheets stabilized by salt bridges formed between the Lys28 sidechain and the C-terminus of Ala42. This structure distinctively differs from the long-known structure of Aβ40 in the β-hairpin shaped conformation consisting of two β-sheets. Recent in silico investigations based on all-atom models have reached closer agreement with the in vitro measurements of Aβ40 thermodynamics. In this study, we present an in silico investigation of Aβ42 thermodynamics. Using the established force field parameters in seven sets of all-atom simulations, we examined the stability of small Aβ42 oligomers in physiological saline. We computed the elongation affinity of the S-shaped Aβ42 fibril, reaching agreement with the experimental data. We also estimated the Arrhenius activation barrier along the elongation pathway (from the disordered conformation of a free Aβ42 peptide to its S-shaped conformation on a fibril) that amounts to about 16 kcal/mol, which is consistent with the experimental data. Based on these quantitative agreements, we conclude that aggregation of Aβ42 peptides into fibrils is thermodynamically slow without precipitation by extrinsic factors such as heparan sulfate proteoglycan and highlight the possibility to prevent Aβ42 aggregation by eliminating some precipitation factors or by increasing competitive agents to capture and transport free Aβ42 peptides from the cerebrospinal fluid. - Highlights: • Aβ42 fibril elongation affinity was computed with chemical accuracy, in agreement with in vitro data. • Small Aβ42 oligomers were found to be stable in physiological saline. • A long Aβ42 fibril-filament was shown to stabilize an Aβ dimer in its proximity.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2018

Hypertonic saline regulates microglial M2 polarization via miR-200b/KLF4 in cerebral edema treatment

Highlights: • Hypertonic saline (HS) alleviates cerebral edema via regulating neuroinflammation. • miR-200b/KLF4 regulates microglial M2 polarization during HS treatment. • KLF4 directly binds to Arg1 promoter and induces its transcription. • Modulation of KLF4 in vivo affects HS treatment of cerebral edema. Hypertonic saline (HS) has been used clinically for treatment of cerebral edema for decades. Previously we have demonstrated that HS alleviates cerebral edema via regulating water/ion channel protein and attenuating neuroinflammation. However, whether HS treatment triggers microglia polarization and its regulatory mechanism during this process is unclear.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Comprehensive parametric study of CO 2 sequestration in deep saline aquifers

Carbon dioxide injection in deep saline aquifers is a key method for permanently sequestering anthropogenic CO 2 . Here this study employs a reactive transport model to explore mineral precipitation/dissolution and its impact on reservoir properties in deep saline aquifers. We also assess capillary pressure and relative permeability hysteresis on various CO 2 trapping mechanisms. Results from this study reveal the significant influence of initial brine composition on mineral precipitation/dissolution. The dissolution and precipitation of minerals have different effects around the wellbores compared to the overall reservoir. Additionally, salt concentration (Ca ++ and Mg ++ ) and quartz surface area affect CO 2 mineralization, while Na + impacts halite precipitation, altering flow properties. The effect of capillary pressure is significant, as including the capillary pressure in the simulation case resulted in significantly improved CO 2 trapping, achieving almost total dissolution of the injected CO 2 in around 300 years. This study offers novel insights into the interactions of reservoir minerals, brine properties, and the injected CO 2 .

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2016

Assessment of desalination technologies for treatment of a highly saline brine from a potential CO 2 storage site

Brine extraction is a promising strategy for the management of increased reservoir pressure, resulting from carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) injection in deep saline reservoirs. The extracted brines usually have high concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) and various contaminants, and require proper disposal or treatment. In this article, first by conducting a critical review, we evaluate the applicability, limits, and advantages or challenges of various commercially available and emerging desalination technologies that can potentially be employed to treat the highly saline brine (with TDS values >70.000 ppm) and those that are applicable to a ~200,000 ppm TDS brine extracted from the Mt. Simon Sandstone, a potential CO 2 storage site in Illinois, USA. Based on the side-by-side comparison of technologies, evaporators are selected as the most suitable existing technology for treating Mt. Simon brine. Process simulations are then conducted for a conceptual design for desalination of 454 m 3 /h (2000 gpm) pretreated brine for near-zero liquid discharge by multi-effect evaporators. In conclusion, the thermal energy demand is estimated at 246kWh perm 3 of recoveredwater, ofwhich 212kWh/m 3 is required for multiple-effect evaporation and the remainder for salt drying. The process also requires additional electrical power of ~2 kWh/m 3 .

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2018

Hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope dynamics of hyper-saline and salt-saturated aqueous solutions

An attractive tracer of water-surface interactions in humidity exposure experiments are the stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in water vapor, though the conventional method of using salt saturated aqueous solutions to control humidity is likely to exert strong effects on the H and O stable isotope composition of the vapor. The magnitude of these effects are virtually unknown for hyper-saline solutions near salt saturation and beyond. Here we explore the hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope effects of salt-water mixtures from dilute to the salt saturation point and beyond for BaCl 2 , CaCl 2 , KCl, K 2 SO 4 , MgCl 2 , NaBr, NaCl, and NaI salts, of which the O isotope results on BaCl 2 , K 2 SO 4 , and NaBr are the first to be reported, and the first for H with BaCl2. We find that vapor humidity levels, and hydrogen and oxygen isotope effects in the vapor generated from dilute solutions to salt-saturated mixtures increase in magnitude by predictable linear trends. In the case of hydrogen isotope salt effects, the cation identity matters, as the effect becomes stronger with decreasing size and increasing charge (increasing ionic potential) in the sequence of: K < Na < Ba < Ca < Mg. For oxygen, the cation effect becomes stronger with increasing ionic potential, in the order of Na < Ba < K < Ca < Mg (irrespective of sign). Hydrogen and oxygen isotope effects in vapor from salt concentrations greater than the salt saturation point do not behave as systematically, with some of the salts displaying no increase in isotope effects beyond saturation, while others show an increase in isotope effects beyond salt saturation, especially in the case of hydrogen. We make specific recommendations on the salts that exert hydrogen and oxygen isotope effects with the least magnitude and most predictability for humidity levels from 26% to 92%. The use of salt solutions to create vapor at less than 100% and with specific δ 2 H and δ 18 O values that differ from that defined by the global meteoric water relationship also seems possible. Hyper-saline surface waters can exist at and above saturation, and thus these isotope effects may be present in them, as well as in minerals that form from these waters.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Pressure falloff testing to characterize CO 2 plume and dry-out zone during CO 2 injection in saline aquifers

The fluid mobilities and the lateral extent of the CO 2 plume and the dry-out zone are among important unknowns required to effectively manage CO 2 storage in saline aquifers projects. These unknowns can be derived from pressure falloff testing which has been widely used to characterize the subsurface. This paper provides a three-region analytical solution for falloff pressure during the infinite-acting period of CO 2 injection in saline aquifers. The solution is derived using Laplace transformation technique of the governing diffusivity equations and the accompanying initial and boundary conditions. The exact solution is validated against numerical results obtained from a black-oil reservoir simulator for two cases. The solution is approximated into simple forms in real-time domain considering different time periods. Then, a graphical semi-log analysis technique based on the approximate solutions is provided as an interpretation tool of falloff tests where the fluid mobilities and the extents of dry-out zone and CO 2 plume can be inferred. The interpretation technique is applied to synthetic falloff test data to investigate its potential and reliability.

02 PETROLEUM↗

DOE OSTI2018

Viscoelastic diamine surfactant for stable carbon dioxide/water foams over a wide range in salinity and temperature

Hypothesis: The viscosity and stability of CO 2 /water foams at elevated temperature can be increased significantly with highly viscoelastic aqueous lamellae. The slow thinning of these viscoelastic lamellae leads to greater foam stability upon slowing down Ostwald ripening and coalescence. In the aqueous phase, the viscoelasticity may be increased by increasing the surfactant tail length to form more entangled micelles even at high temperatures and salinity. Experiments: Systematic measurements of the steady state shear viscosity of aqueous solutions of the diamine surfactant (C 16-18 N(CH 3 )C 3 N(CH 3 ) 2 ) were conducted at varying surfactant concentrations and salinity to determine the parameters for formation of entangled wormlike micelles. The apparent viscosity and stability of CO 2 /water foams were compared for systems with viscoelastic entangled micellar aqueous phases relative to those with much less viscous spherical micelles. Findings: We demonstrated for the first time stable CO 2 /water foams at temperatures up to 120 °C and CO 2 volumetric fractions up to 0.98 with a single diamine surfactant, C 16-18 N(CH 3 )C 3 N(CH 3 ) 2 . The foam stability was increased by increasing the packing parameter of the surfactant with a long tail and methyl substitution on the amine to form entangled viscoelastic wormlike micelles in the aqueous phase. The foam was more viscous and stable compared to foams with spherical micelles in the aqueous lamellae as seen with C 12-14 N(EO) 2 and C 16-18 N(EO)C 3 N(EO) 2 .

nuclear (including radiation effects), carbon sequ↗

DOE OSTI2026

Chemical-Free Lithium Separation from High-Salinity Brines Using Model-Informed and Machine Learning-Optimized Multi-Column Zwitterionic Chromatography

Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technologies often struggle to produce high-purity lithium salts from high-salinity brines, as current approaches require chemical-based elution, regeneration, and precipitation steps, resulting in significant environmental footprints. A novel salt fractionation approach using carboxybetaine resin, known as zwitterionic chromatography (ZIC), has demonstrated that lithium ions can be separated from divalent cations under high-salinity conditions using only water as eluent, with no regeneration required. To enable continuous and scalable deployment of this approach, we developed a chemical-free Multi-column Zwitterionic Chromatography (MZC) process and its theoretical and process models. To predict and optimize this nontraditional separation system, we introduced a novel anti-Langmuir isotherm, and the isotherm parameters were estimated through a machine learning-driven optimization based on artificial neural network ensembles with numerical feasibility assessment. Using machine learning-driven optimization, the MZC process achieved 98.0% lithium recovery, 99.5 % Li/(Li + Mg + Ca) purity, a 31.3% productivity increase, and a 33% reduction in water use compared to batch operation. The proposed MZC process enables lithium separation at $0.6-1.2 kg-1 Li, with costs dominated by resin manufacturing, while offering lower separation costs and carbon footprint compared with conventional carbonation. Overall, these findings position the MZC process as an effective polishing step within scalable and sustainable lithium production pipelines.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Chromium speciation and mobility in contaminated coastal urban soils affected by water salinity and redox conditions

Chromium (Cr) is a redox-sensitive element in contaminated coastal urban soils. Sea level rise (SLR) with subsequent soil inundation may facilitate Cr transformation and mobilization through alterations in local redox conditions and porewater ion composition. Here, we investigated the impact of water salinity and redox conditions on Cr chemistry in these environments. Synchrotron-based X-ray spectroscopy and wet chemical analyses revealed that the soils contained very high levels of Cr (up to 4320 mg kg -1 ) and that chromite (~52%) and Fe-Cr hydroxide coprecipitates (~44%) were the predominant Cr species. The abundance of these two components resulted in low Cr mobility under non-flooded conditions. Chromium(II) was identified in the soils, potentially derived from the waste parent material. Seawater and anoxic conditions resulted in lower Cr release compared to freshwater and aerobic conditions. Up to three to eight times more Cr was released under aerobic conditions versus anaerobic conditions in the freshwater versus saltwater, respectively, with total dissolved Cr values remaining below 0.02 mg L -1 . The decrease in Cr release was likely due to Cr reduction by Fe(II) and sulfide. This work provides important information on how salinity and redox fluctuations impact Cr cycling which is likely to occur during SLR.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

A Review and Outlook on Experimental Advances and Innovations in Geological CO 2 Storage: Insights from Depleted Gas Reservoirs and Saline Aquifers

Geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in depleted gas reservoirs and deep saline aquifers is a key part of global decarbonization efforts. As carbon capture and storage advances toward commercial-scale deployment, the credibility and scalability of laboratory experiments are increasingly vital for guiding safe and effective field implementation. This review offers a comprehensive, cross-scale evaluation of experimental methodologies, including core flooding, high-pressure, high-temperature systems, microfluidic visualization, and emerging systems such as multilayer commingled/compartmentalized core flooding, 3D-printed micromodels, and AI-powered digital twins. These innovations are demonstrated to enhance representativeness, reproducibility, and real-time insight, thereby addressing the limitations of conventional workflows. A critical analysis of methodological gaps, such as inconsistent pressure–temperature conditions, oversimplified brine chemistry, and a lack of standardization, reveals experimental sources of scale translation errors and performance uncertainty. By comparing the unique challenges of depleted gas reservoirs (such as low water saturation and legacy well leakage) to those of saline aquifers (including pressure buildup and caprock integrity), this review identifies formation-specific priorities for experimental design. Novel contributions include a synthesis of best practices, integration strategies for model calibration, and recommendations for standardizing core handling, saturation procedures, and reporting protocols. Furthermore, this work serves as a guide for developing robust, field-relevant experimental strategies that can increase the deployment and regulatory acceptance of CO 2 storage technologies at scale.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗