SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “Performance Prediction Package”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

SourceResearch connectionFrom yearThrough year

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 289 records · Page 16

All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2017

Compare optimized performance results for packaged RTU using all alternative refrigerants FY17 1st Quarter Milestone Report

Based on the laboratory investigation in FY16, for R-22 and R-410A alternative low GWP refrigerants in two baseline rooftop air conditioners (RTU), we used the DOE/ORNL Heat Pump Design Model to model the two RTUs and calibrated the models against the experimental data. Using the calibrated equipment models, we compared the compressor efficiencies, heat exchanger performances. An efficiency-based compressor mapping method was developed, which is able to predict compressor performances of the alternative low GWP refrigerants accurately. Extensive model-based optimizations were conducted to provide a fair comparison between all the low GWP candidates by selecting their preferred configurations at the same cooling capacity and compressor efficiencies.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2014

Energy Evaluation of a New Construction Pilot Community: Fresno, California

A new construction pilot community was constructed by builder-partner Wathen-Castanos Hybrid Homes (WCHH) based on a single occupied test house that was designed to achieve greater than 30% energy savings with respect to the House Simulation Protocols (Hendron, Robert; Engebrecht, Cheryn (2010). Building America House Simulation Protocols. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory). Builders face several key problems when implementing a whole-house systems integrated measures package (SIMP) from a single test house into multiple houses. Although a technical solution already may have been evaluated and validated in an individual test house, the potential exists for constructability failures at the community scale. This report addresses factors of implementation and scalability at the community scale and proposes methodologies by which community-scale energy evaluations can be performed based on results at the occupied test house level. Research focused on the builder and trade implementation of a SIMP and the actual utility usage in the houses at the community scale of production. Five occupants participated in this community-scale research by providing utility bills and information on occupancy and miscellaneous gas and electric appliance use for their houses. IBACOS used these utility data and background information to analyze the actual energy performance of the houses. Verification with measured data is an important component in predictive energy modeling. The actual utility bill readings were compared to projected energy consumption using BEopt with actual weather and thermostat set points for normalization.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

Impact of genotype‐calling methodologies on genome‐wide association and genomic prediction in polyploids

Abstract Discovery and analysis of genetic variants underlying agriculturally important traits are key to molecular breeding of crops. Reduced representation approaches have provided cost‐efficient genotyping using next‐generation sequencing. However, accurate genotype calling from next‐generation sequencing data is challenging, particularly in polyploid species due to their genome complexity. Recently developed Bayesian statistical methods implemented in available software packages, polyRAD, EBG, and updog, incorporate error rates and population parameters to accurately estimate allelic dosage across any ploidy. We used empirical and simulated data to evaluate the three Bayesian algorithms and demonstrated their impact on the power of genome‐wide association study (GWAS) analysis and the accuracy of genomic prediction. We further incorporated uncertainty in allelic dosage estimation by testing continuous genotype calls and comparing their performance to discrete genotypes in GWAS and genomic prediction. We tested the genotype‐calling methods using data from two autotetraploid species, Miscanthus sacchariflorus and Vaccinium corymbosum , and performed GWAS and genomic prediction. In the empirical study, the tested Bayesian genotype‐calling algorithms differed in their downstream effects on GWAS and genomic prediction, with some showing advantages over others. Through subsequent simulation studies, we observed that at low read depth, polyRAD was advantageous in its effect on GWAS power and limit of false positives. Additionally, we found that continuous genotypes increased the accuracy of genomic prediction, by reducing genotyping error, particularly at low sequencing depth. Our results indicate that by using the Bayesian algorithm implemented in polyRAD and continuous genotypes, we can accurately and cost‐efficiently implement GWAS and genomic prediction in polyploid crops.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1986

Development of a ROT22 - DATAMAP interface

This report (Contract NAS2-10331- Mod 10), outlines the development and validation of an interface between the three-dimensional transonic analysis program ROT22 and the Data from Aeromechanics Test and Analytics-Management and Analysis Package (DATAMAP). After development of the interface, the validation is carried out as follows. First, the DATAMAP program is used to analyze a portion of the Tip Aerodynamics and Acoustics Test (TAAT) data. Specifically, records 2872 and 2873 are analyzed at an azimuth of 90 deg, and record 2806 is analyzed at 60 deg. Trim conditions for these flight conditions are then calculated using the Bell performance prediction program ARAM45. Equivalent shaft, pitch, and twist angles are calculated from ARAM45 results and used as input to the ROT22 program. The interface uses the ROT22 results and creates DATAMAP information files from which the surface pressure contours and sectional pressure coefficients are plotted. Twist angles input to ROT22 program are then iteratively modified in the tip region until the computed pressure coefficients closely match the measurements. In all cases studied, the location of the shock is well predicted. However, the negative pressure coefficients were underpredicted. This could be accounted for by blade vortex interaction effects.

Shenoy, K. R.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Radioactive Source Localization via Bayesian Particle Filter

In the event of a misplaced radioactive source or other emergency situation, measuring a radiation field, mapping its distribution, and determining a source location are essential tasks to ameliorating the situation. However, radiation fields may be extremely hazardous to human surveyors and minimizing received radiation doses is just as essential. Robots appear to be a potential solution to these problems. Beyond simply measuring radiation, the robot's computer processing capabilities offer a way to apply complex data analysis methods to radiation measurements in real-time. Methods which predict likely source locations can then feed this information into other processes, potentially improving path planning and enabling more efficient measurements. Given a robot mounted with a gamma-ray detector, can we: develop a methodology to account for detector performance across a wide range of source angles, distances, and photon energies? operate an autonomously navigating robot to effectively survey and characterize an area of interest? implement a data analysis method, conventionally used in measurements of motion, for source localization purposes? An open-source TurtleBot 3 robot, running Robot Operating System (ROS) on Ubuntu 16.04 LTS, was fitted with a Kromek GR1{sup R} Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) solid-state gamma-ray detector. As a part of ROS, the packages OpenSlam, gmapping, and amcl were used to perform Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), determining the robot's position and mapping the surrounding area. Data was acquired via Lidar mounted on top the TurtleBot 3. Detector Calibration Fit: The equation was fit to 365 counts of various energies, distances, and angles. A MATLAB{sup R} program was written to simulate measurements taken a robot on a random walk, with count data and positions discretized into finite element pixels. Using this program, a sample of 100 runs was performed on a map with a simulated source at the center, with a total of 200 of 2 pixels each. Similarly, multiple runs of the filter were performed on recorded robot measurement data. In both simulation and real tests, when corrected for errors (particles placed outside of bounds or on the robot, and simulation-specific errors), corresponding t-tests of predicted x and y-coordinates were within a 95% confidence interval of the actual position. For the real trial, these positions are slightly skewed right in the x-axis as the robot remained mainly to the left side of the source within the sample area. These simulations demonstrate potential validity for the usage of a particle filter as method of radioactive source localization. In the future, true real-time implementation and data fusion may further augment the performance of the robot to localize lost sources. Additionally, identification of multiple sources, determination of source types, and usage of a collimator are areas to potentially be explored.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

NASA NTRS2011

Measuring Fluctuating Pressure Levels and Vibration Response in a Jet Plume

The characterization of loads due to solid rocket motor plume impingement allows for moreaccurate analyses of components subjected to such an environment. Typically, test verification of predicted loads due to these conditions is widely overlooked or unsuccessful. ATA Engineering, Inc., performed testing during a solid rocket motor firing to obtain acceleration and pressure responses in the hydrodynamic field surrounding the jet plume. The test environment necessitated a robust design to facilitate measurements being made in close proximity to the jet plume. This paper presents the process of designing a test fixture and an instrumentation package that could withstand the solid rocket plume environment and protect the required instrumentation.

Osterholt, Douglas J.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Neoclassical toroidal viscosity torque prediction via deep learning

GPECnet is a densely connected neural network that has been trained on GPEC data, to predict the plasma stability, neoclassical toroidal viscosity (NTV) torque, and optimized 3D coil current distributions for desired NTV torque profiles. Using NTV torque, driven by non-axisymmetric field perturbations in a tokamak, can be vital in optimizing pedestal performance by controlling the rotation profile in both the core, to ensure tearing stability, and the edge, to avoid edge localized modes (ELMs). The generalized perturbed equilibrium code (GPEC) software package can be used to calculate the plasma stability to 3D perturbations and the NTV torque profile generated by applied 3D magnetic fields. These calculations, however, involve complex integrations over space and energy distributions, which takes time to compute. Initially, GPECnet has been trained solely on data representative of the quiescent H-mode (QH) scenario, in which neutral beams are often balanced and toroidal rotation is low across the plasma profile. Lastly, this work provides the foundation for active control of the rotation shear using a combination of beams and 3D fields for robust and high performance QH mode operation.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

NASA NTRS2008

Overview of the NASA Subsonic Rotary Wing Aeronautics Research Program in Rotorcraft Crashworthiness

This paper provides an overview of rotorcraft crashworthiness research being conducted at NASA Langley Research Center under sponsorship of the Subsonic Rotary Wing (SRW) Aeronautics Program. The research is focused in two areas: development of an externally deployable energy attenuating concept and improved prediction of rotorcraft crashworthiness. The deployable energy absorber (DEA) is a composite honeycomb structure, with a unique flexible hinge design that allows the honeycomb to be packaged and remain flat until needed for deployment. The capabilities of the DEA have been demonstrated through component crush tests and vertical drop tests of a retrofitted fuselage section onto different surfaces or terrain. The research on improved prediction of rotorcraft crashworthiness is focused in several areas including simulating occupant responses and injury risk assessment, predicting multi-terrain impact, and utilizing probabilistic analysis methods. A final task is to perform a system-integrated simulation of a full-scale helicopter crash test onto a rigid surface. A brief description of each research task is provided along with a summary of recent accomplishments.

Jackson, Karen E.↗

NASA NTRS2009

Overview of the NASA Subsonic Rotary Wing Aeronautics Research Program in Rotorcraft Crashworthiness

Jackson, Karen E.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) Sensor Validation and Verification on National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Lockheed WP-3D Aircraft

As part of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Aviation Safety and Security Program, the Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting project (TAMDAR) developed a low-cost sensor for aircraft flying in the lower troposphere. This activity was a joint effort with support from Federal Aviation Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and industry. This paper reports the TAMDAR sensor performance validation and verification, as flown on board NOAA Lockheed WP-3D aircraft. These flight tests were conducted to assess the performance of the TAMDAR sensor for measurements of temperature, relative humidity, and wind parameters. The ultimate goal was to develop a small low-cost sensor, collect useful meteorological data, downlink the data in near real time, and use the data to improve weather forecasts. The envisioned system will initially be used on regional and package carrier aircraft. The ultimate users of the data are National Centers for Environmental Prediction forecast modelers. Other users include air traffic controllers, flight service stations, and airline weather centers. NASA worked with an industry partner to develop the sensor. Prototype sensors were subjected to numerous tests in ground and flight facilities. As a result of these earlier tests, many design improvements were made to the sensor. The results of tests on a final version of the sensor are the subject of this report. The sensor is capable of measuring temperature, relative humidity, pressure, and icing. It can compute pressure altitude, indicated air speed, true air speed, ice presence, wind speed and direction, and eddy dissipation rate. Summary results from the flight test are presented along with corroborative data from aircraft instruments.

Tsoucalas, George↗

DOE OSTI2024

Large eddy simulation of a pressurized reactive fluid–particle system: single-particle dynamics analysis

Pressurized oxy-combustion (POC) is a promising candidate to reduce carbon emissions in power generation. Designing an effective burner plays a vital role in developing new combustion technologies. Because of the high pressure, the volume fraction of particles in a pressurized oxy-combustor could be higher than that in the conventional combustor, therefore, the particle dynamics in the pressurized vessel need to be evaluated accordingly. The present computational work is to predict the influence of the particle size and particle injection location on the particle trajectory. The Stokes number based on turbulence fluctuation, St, is adopted to evaluate the impact of the gas phase on the particulate phase. A large eddy simulation (LES) with the environment pressure of 15 bar and the thermal input of the fuel particle of 100 kWth has been performed by means of the commercial CFD package. It is shown that that in this pressurized environment St << 1 for the 25 µm particles, St ~ 1 for the 100 µm particles, while for the particles exceeding 200 µm St >> 1. The trajectories of the sampling particles from the LES results support this conclusion: the particles less than 100 µm tend to be uniformly distributed in the space while the particles exceeding 200 µm tend to concentrate in the combustor.

Li, Lei↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Solar Cruiser TRAC Boom Development

The TRAC boom studied is a 30 meter, high-aspect ratio and highly nonlinear structural element planned for the NASA Solar Cruiser spacecraft where it would serve as the solar sail’s skeletal system designed to deploy the packaged reflective sail membrane as well as support operational sail tension loads for flight. Key design drivers for this boom are understanding and characterizing load-deformation behavior and quantifying buckling performance–under flight conditions (zero gravity). Knowing that the full-scale solar sail system cannot be feasibly tested for flight conditions under Earth’s gravity, a building block approach is methodically followed to verify finite element analysis (FEA) predictions and to evolve the finite element model (FEM) accordingly, beginning with the lowest level complexity to match global elastic behavior to the highest level complexity to bound theoretical responses under conservative expected flight conditions. Although the testing campaign for the TRAC boom has not developed yet to produce a full-scale test data point that loads the boom to failure, the fidelity of simulations have evolved with success and warrant further interest and work on this high-aspect ratio, but highly stable, deployable structural boom.

Lee Nguyen↗

DOE OSTI2015

Measurements and non-local thermodynamic equilibrium modeling of mid-Z plasma emission

The x-ray yields from laser-irradiated thin foils of iron, copper, zinc, and germanium have been measured in the soft and multi-keV x-ray ranges at the OMEGA laser at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics. The incident laser power had a pre-pulse to enhance the x-ray emission of a 1 ns flat-top main pulse. The experimental results have been compared with post-shot simulations performed with the two-dimensional radiation-hydrodynamics code FCI2. A new non-local thermodynamic equilibrium model, NOO-RAD, have been incorporated into FCI2. In this approach, the plasma ionization state is in-line calculated by the atomic physics NOHEL package. In the soft x-ray bands, both simulations using RADIOM [M. Busquet, Phys. Fluids B 5, 4191 (1993)] and NOO-RAD clearly over-predict the powers and energies measured by a broad-band spectrometer. In one case (the iron foil), the discrepancy between the measured and simulated x-ray output is nevertheless significantly reduced when NOO-RAD is used in the simulations. In the multi-keV x-ray bands, the simulations display a strong sensitivity to the coupling between the electron thermal conductivity and the NLTE models, and for some particular combinations of these, provide a close match to the measured emission. The comparison between the measured and simulated H-like to He-like line-intensity ratios deduced from high-resolution spectra indicates higher experimental electron temperatures were achieved, compared to the simulated ones. Measurements of the plasma conditions have been achieved using the Thomson-scattering diagnostic. The electron temperatures are found to range from 3 to 5 keV at the end of the laser pulse and are greater than predicted by the simulations. The measured flow velocities are in reasonable agreement with the calculated ones. This last finding gives us confidence in our numerical predictions for the plasma parameters, which are over that time mainly determined by hydrodynamics, such as the mass densities and the ion temperatures.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2013

A novel QSAR model of Salmonella mutagenicity and its application in the safety assessment of drug impurities

As indicated in ICH M7 draft guidance, in silico predictive tools including statistically-based QSARs and expert analysis may be used as a computational assessment for bacterial mutagenicity for the qualification of impurities in pharmaceuticals. To address this need, we developed and validated a QSAR model to predict Salmonella t. mutagenicity (Ames assay outcome) of pharmaceutical impurities using Prous Institute's Symmetry℠, a new in silico solution for drug discovery and toxicity screening, and the Mold2 molecular descriptor package (FDA/NCTR). Data was sourced from public benchmark databases with known Ames assay mutagenicity outcomes for 7300 chemicals (57% mutagens). Of these data, 90% was used to train the model and the remaining 10% was set aside as a holdout set for validation. The model's applicability to drug impurities was tested using a FDA/CDER database of 951 structures, of which 94% were found within the model's applicability domain. The predictive performance of the model is acceptable for supporting regulatory decision-making with 84 ± 1% sensitivity, 81 ± 1% specificity, 83 ± 1% concordance and 79 ± 1% negative predictivity based on internal cross-validation, while the holdout dataset yielded 83% sensitivity, 77% specificity, 80% concordance and 78% negative predictivity. Given the importance of having confidence in negative predictions, an additional external validation of the model was also carried out, using marketed drugs known to be Ames-negative, and obtained 98% coverage and 81% specificity. Additionally, Ames mutagenicity data from FDA/CFSAN was used to create another data set of 1535 chemicals for external validation of the model, yielding 98% coverage, 73% sensitivity, 86% specificity, 81% concordance and 84% negative predictivity. - Highlights: • A new in silico QSAR model to predict Ames mutagenicity is described. • The model is extensively validated with chemicals from the FDA and the public domain. • Validation tests show desirable high sensitivity and high negative predictivity. • The model predicted 14 reportedly difficult to predict drug impurities with accuracy. • The model is suitable to support risk evaluation of potentially mutagenic compounds.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Classroom aerosol dispersion modeling: experimental assessment of a low-cost flow simulation tool

The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of a low-cost flow simulation tool for an indoor air modeling application by comparing its outputs with the results of a physical experiment, as well as those from a more advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package. In this study, five aerosol dispersion tests were performed in two different classrooms by releasing a CO 2 tracer gas from six student locations. Resultant steady-state concentrations were monitored at 13 locations around the periphery of the room. Subsequently, the experiments were modeled using both a low-cost tool (SolidWorks Flow Simulation) and a more sophisticated tool (STAR-CCM+). Models were evaluated based on their ability to predict the experimentally measured concentrations at the 13 monitoring locations by calculating four performance parameters commonly used in the evaluation of dispersion models: fractional mean bias (FB), normalized mean-square error (NMSE), fraction of predicted value within a factor of two (FAC2), and normalized absolute difference (NAD). The more sophisticated model performed better in 15 of the 20 possible cases (five tests at four parameters each), with parameters meeting acceptance criteria in 19 of 20 cases. However, the lower-cost tool was only slightly worse, with parameters meeting acceptance criteria in 18 of 20 cases, and it performed better than the other tool in 3 of 20 cases. Because it provides useful results at a fraction of the monetary and training cost and is already widely accessible to many institutions, such a tool may be worthwhile for many indoor aerosol dispersion applications, especially for students or researchers just beginning CFD modeling.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2017

Rapid sampling of stochastic displacements in Brownian dynamics simulations

Here, we present a new method for sampling stochastic displacements in Brownian Dynamics (BD) simulations of colloidal scale particles. The method relies on a new formulation for Ewald summation of the Rotne-Prager-Yamakawa (RPY) tensor, which guarantees that the real-space and wave-space contributions to the tensor are independently symmetric and positive-definite for all possible particle configurations. Brownian displacements are drawn from a superposition of two independent samples: a wave-space (far-field or long-ranged) contribution, computed using techniques from fluctuating hydrodynamics and non-uniform fast Fourier transforms; and a real-space (near-field or short-ranged) correction, computed using a Krylov subspace method. The combined computational complexity of drawing these two independent samples scales linearly with the number of particles. The proposed method circumvents the super-linear scaling exhibited by all known iterative sampling methods applied directly to the RPY tensor that results from the power law growth of the condition number of tensor with the number of particles. For geometrically dense microstructures (fractal dimension equal three), the performance is independent of volume fraction, while for tenuous microstructures (fractal dimension less than three), such as gels and polymer solutions, the performance improves with decreasing volume fraction. This is in stark contrast with other related linear-scaling methods such as the force coupling method and the fluctuating immersed boundary method, for which performance degrades with decreasing volume fraction. Calculations for hard sphere dispersions and colloidal gels are illustrated and used to explore the role of microstructure on performance of the algorithm. In practice, the logarithmic part of the predicted scaling is not observed and the algorithm scales linearly for up to 4×10 6 particles, obtaining speed ups of over an order of magnitude over existing iterative methods, and making the cost of computing Brownian displacements comparable to the cost of computing deterministic displacements in BD simulations. Finally, a high-performance implementation employing non-uniform fast Fourier transforms implemented on graphics processing units and integrated with the software package HOOMD-blue is used for benchmarking.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2021

Modeling of particle transport, neutrals and radiation in magnetically-confined plasmas with Aurora

In this work, we present Aurora, an open-source package for particle transport, neutrals and radiation modeling in magnetic confinement fusion plasmas. Aurora's modern multi-language interface enables simulations of 1.5D impurity transport within high-performance computing frameworks, particularly for the inference of particle transport coefficients. A user-friendly Python library allows simple interaction with atomic rates from the Atomic Data and Atomic Structure database as well as other sources. This enables a range of radiation predictions, both for power balance and spectroscopic analysis. We discuss here the superstaging approximation for complex ions, as a way to group charge states and reduce computational cost, demonstrating its wide applicability within the Aurora forward model and beyond. Aurora also facilitates neutral particle analysis, both from experimental spectroscopic data and other simulation codes. Leveraging Aurora's capabilities to interface SOLPS-ITER results, we demonstrate that charge exchange is unlikely to affect the total radiated power from the ITER core during high performance operation. Finally, we describe the ImpRad module in the one modeling framework for integrated task framework, developed to enable experimental analysis and transport inferences on multiple devices using Aurora.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2015

Application of an Online-Coupled Regional Climate Model, WRF-CAM5, over East Asia for Examination of Ice Nucleation Schemes: Part I. Comprehensive Model Evaluation and Trend Analysis for 2006 and 2011

Online-coupled climate and chemistry models are necessary to realistically represent the interactions between climate variables and chemical species and accurately simulate aerosol direct and indirect effects on cloud, precipitation, and radiation. In this Part I of a two-part paper, simulations from the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with the physics package of Community Atmosphere Model (WRF-CAM5) are conducted with the default heterogeneous ice nucleation parameterization over East Asia for two full years: 2006 and 2011. A comprehensive model evaluation is performed using satellite and surface observations. The model shows an overall acceptable performance for major meteorological variables at the surface and in the boundary layer, as well as column variables (e.g., precipitation, cloud fraction, precipitating water vapor, downward longwave and shortwave radiation). Moderate to large biases exist for cloud condensation nuclei over oceanic areas, cloud variables (e.g., cloud droplet number concentration, cloud liquid and ice water paths, cloud optical depth, longwave and shortwave cloud forcing). These biases indicate a need to improve the model treatments for cloud processes, especially cloud droplets and ice nucleation, as well as to reduce uncertainty in the satellite retrievals. The model simulates well the column abundances of chemical species except for column SO 2 but relatively poor for surface concentrations of several species such as CO, NO 2 , SO 2 , PM2.5, and PM10. Several reasons could contribute to the underestimation of major chemical species in East Asia including underestimations of anthropogenic emissions and natural dust emissions, uncertainties in the spatial and vertical distributions of the anthropogenic emissions, as well as biases in meteorological, radiative, and cloud predictions. Despite moderate to large biases in the chemical predictions, the model performance is generally consistent with or even better than that reported for East Asia with only a few exceptions. The model generally reproduces the observed seasonal variations and the difference between 2006 and 2011 for most variables or chemical species. Overall, these results demonstrate promising skills of WRF-CAM5 for long-term simulations at a regional scale and suggest several areas of potential improvements.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗