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NASA NTRS2016

Martian Environment Electrostatic Precipitator

As part of the planned manned mission to Mars, NASA has noticed that shipping oxygen as a part of life support to keep the astronauts alive continuously is overly expensive, and impractical. As such, noting that the Martian atmosphere is 95.37% CO2, NASA chemists noted that one could obtain oxygen from the Martian atmosphere. The plan, as part of a larger ISRU (in-situ resource utilization) initiative, would extract water from the regolith, or the Martian soil which can be electrolyzed by solar panel produced voltage into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen can then be used in the Sabatier reaction with carbon dioxide to produce methane and water producing a net reaction that does not lose water and outputs methane and oxygen for use as rocket fuel and breathing.

Dust↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA’s Moon to Mars (M2M) Transit Habitat Refinement Point of Departure Design

As NASA prepares for the next human footsteps on the lunar surface, the Agency is already looking ahead to systems that will enable a sustained human presence on the lunar surface and mission to Mars, including a lunar Surface Habitat (SH) and Mars Transit Habitat (TH). This paper describes the latest NASA government reference design for the TH and how it will support NASA's Moon to Mars human exploration architecture. First, it will serve as a test and demonstration platform in lunar orbit, demonstrating capabilities required for long-duration microgravity human spaceflight as part of the lunar-Mars analog missions. Then, the TH will serve as a major Mars exploration element to support crew habitation during their transit from the Earth’s orbit to Mars and returning safely before TH’s return to a lunar orbit. This paper will cover several considerations contributing to the latest habitat design refinement, including the TH's concept of operations, system functional definition, subsystem assumptions, notional interior layouts, a detailed mass and volume breakdown, and identify future trade studies and analyses required to close identified technology/ development/architecture gaps. In addition to a technical description of the TH, this paper describes how the current TH government reference design will achieve many of the current lunar and Mars mission goals. Additionally, there are many assumed technological advances needed to support the prescribed mission phases leading up to the crewed mission to Mars in the late 2030s. The paper will describe many of the TH systems requiring further technology development and identify architectural solutions to achieve these mass, reliability, autonomy, and crew health targets. As a whole, the data shows the government reference TH design meeting the 26.4 metric ton launch /trans-Mars injection burn control mass limit outlined within NASA’s Moon to Mars Campaign. This is achievable near the desired timeframe with moderate strategic investments including maintainable life support systems, innovative structures configuration and materials, and system/ logistics packaging. The resulting design detail and data contained in this paper are intended to help teams across NASA and potential commercial, academic, or international partners understand the current performance targets of the Transit Habitat and vehicle interface considerations imposed by the latest Moon to Mars mission scope.

Habitation Systems↗

NASA NTRS1990

Automation of closed environments in space for human comfort and safety

The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) for the Space Station Freedom and future colonization of the Moon and Mars presents new challenges for present technologies. Current plans call for a crew of 8 to live in a safe, shirt-sleeve environment for 90 days without ground support. Because of these requirements, all life support systems must be self-sufficient and reliable. The ECLSS is composed of six subsystems. The temperature and humidity control (THC) subsystem maintains the cabin temperature and humidity at a comfortable level. The atmosphere control and supply (ACS) subsystem insures proper cabin pressure and partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen. To protect the space station from fire damage, the fire detection and suppression (FDS) subsystem provides fire sensing alarms and extinguishers. The waste management (WM) subsystem compacts solid wastes for return to Earth, and collects urine for water recovery. Because it is impractical, if not impossible, to supply the station with enough fresh air and water for the duration of the space station's extended mission, these elements are recycled. The atmosphere revitalization (AR) subsystem removes CO2 and other dangerous contaminants from the air. The water recovery and management (WRM) subsystem collects and filters condensate from the cabin to replenish potable water supplies, and processes urine and other waste waters to replenish hygiene water supplies. These subsystems are not fully automated at this time. Furthermore, the control of these subsystems is not presently integrated; they are largely independent of one another. A fully integrated and automated ECLSS would increase astronauts' productivity and contribute to their safety and comfort. The Kansas State University Advanced Design Team is in the process of researching and designing controls for the automation of the ECLSS for Space Station Freedom and beyond. The approach chosen to solve this problem is to divide the design into three phases. The first phase is to research the ECLSS as a whole system and then concentrate efforts on the automation of a single subsystem. The AR subsystem was chosen for our focus. During the second phase, the system control process will then be applied to the AR subsystem.

Source record↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA’s Moon to Mars (M2M) Transit Habitat (TH) Refinement Point of Departure (PoD) Design

As NASA prepares for the next human footsteps on the lunar surface, the Agency is already looking ahead to systems that will enable a sustained human presence on the lunar surface and mission to Mars, including a lunar Surface Habitat and Mars Transit Habitat (TH). This paper describes the latest NASA government reference design for the TH and how it will support NASA's Moon to Mars human exploration architecture. First, it will serve as a test and demonstration platform in lunar orbit, demonstrating capabilities required for long-duration microgravity human spaceflight as part of the lunar-Mars analog missions. Then, the TH will also serve as a major Mars habitation exploration element to support the crew during their transit from the lunar orbit to Mars and returning them safely to lunar orbit. This paper will cover several considerations contributing to the latest habitat design refinement, including data on the TH's concept of operations, system functional definition, subsystem assumptions, notional interior layouts, a detailed mass and volume breakdown, and trade studies and analyses required to close identified technology/ development/architecture gaps. In addition to a technical description of the TH, this paper describes how the current TH government reference design will achieve many of the current lunar and Mars mission goals. Additionally, there are many assumed technological advances needed to support the prescribed mission phases leading up to the crewed mission to Mars in the late 2030s. The paper will describe many of the TH systems requiring further technology development and identify architectural solutions to achieve these mass, reliability, autonomy, and crew health targets. As a whole, the data in the paper shows that a TH meeting the 43 metric tons launch mass/trans-Mars injection burn limits specified by the Evolvable Mars Campaign is achievable near the desired timeframe with moderate strategic investments including maintainable life support systems, re-purposable structures and packaging, and lightweight exercise modalities. It also identifies operational and technological options to reduce this mass to less than 41 metric tons, including staging of launch structure/packaging and alternate structural materials. The resulting design detail and data contained in this paper are intended to help teams across NASA and potential commercial, academic, or international partners understand the current performance targets of the Transit Habitat and vehicle interface considerations imposed by the latest Moon to Mars mission scope.

Habitation Systems↗

NASA NTRS2005

Air and Water System (AWS) Design and Technology Selection for the Vision for Space Exploration

This paper considers technology selection for the crew air and water recycling systems to be used in long duration human space exploration. The specific objectives are to identify the most probable air and water technologies for the vision for space exploration and to identify the alternate technologies that might be developed. The approach is to conduct a preliminary first cut systems engineering analysis, beginning with the Air and Water System (AWS) requirements and the system mass balance, and then define the functional architecture, review the International Space Station (ISS) technologies, and discuss alternate technologies. The life support requirements for air and water are well known. The results of the mass flow and mass balance analysis help define the system architectural concept. The AWS includes five subsystems: Oxygen Supply, Condensate Purification, Urine Purification, Hygiene Water Purification, and Clothes Wash Purification. AWS technologies have been evaluated in the life support design for ISS node 3, and in earlier space station design studies, in proposals for the upgrade or evolution of the space station, and in studies of potential lunar or Mars missions. The leading candidate technologies for the vision for space exploration are those planned for Node 3 of the ISS. The ISS life support was designed to utilize Space Station Freedom (SSF) hardware to the maximum extent possible. The SSF final technology selection process, criteria, and results are discussed. Would it be cost-effective for the vision for space exploration to develop alternate technology? This paper will examine this and other questions associated with AWS design and technology selection.

Jones, Harry↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Science Capabilities of the Common Habitat

The Common Habitat is the primary habitable element in a conceptual architecture feasibility study for long-duration space exploration with an eight-person crew size. On lunar or planetary surfaces, the Common Habitat forms the core of a Surface Base Camp. In microgravity, the Common Habitat is the core of the Deep Space Exploration Vehicle (DSEV), an in-space transportation spacecraft. The Common Habitat employs a horizontal orientation that is divided internally into a lower deck, mid deck, and upper deck, roughly separating outfitting into individual, work, and group functions. On a planetary surface, the habitat is incorporated into a base camp, located near the south pole in the case of the Moon. The Mars base camp is currently location agnostic. Each base camp is divided into habitation, landing, resource production, and power zones. In microgravity, the habitat is incorporated into the Deep Space Exploration Vehicle, a vessel capable of transporting the crew within the inner solar system. In addition to crew and teleoperated control of external science assets, the Common Habitat employs a suite of life and physical science laboratory systems to enable it to support science investigations across a variety of destination environments, primarily featuring the Moon and Mars, along with the intervening interplanetary space. Other potential destinations include Near Earth Asteroids and Venus and Earth orbits. Located in the aft starboard section of the Common Habitat mid deck, the life science laboratory supports primarily biology and human research. In its baseline configuration, the laboratory includes horizontal work surfaces, freezers, multiple gloveboxes, sample transfer/exposure capability, large instruments, and reconfigurable ISPR-compatible payload bays. The Medical Care Facility and exercise facility can also support life science research. In the aft port section of the mid deck, the physical science laboratory supports physics, chemistry, materials science, geology, and remote sensing (including astrophysics, heliophysics, Earth science, planetary science, and meteorology). It provides a baseline of similar ISPR-compatible payload bays and adds additional freezers, including those for cryogenic sample storage, a remote sensing workstation, more gloveboxes, also with sample transfer/exposure, combustion chambers, fluid mechanics chambers, and a gas chromatograph. It leverages the Command & Control Center for teleoperations of mobile science assets. Both laboratories are highly modular, with the ability to swap out both payloads and instruments on an as-needed basis. The integrated science outfitting of the Common Habitat positions its crew to contribute to all of NASA’s Moon to Mars science objectives and extend human understanding into the inner solar system.

Lunar Suface↗

NASA NTRS2015

Comments on the MIT Assessment of the Mars One Plan

The MIT assessment of the Mars One mission plan reveals design assumptions that would cause significant difficulties. Growing crops in the crew chamber produces excessive oxygen levels. The assumed in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) equipment has too low a Technology Readiness Level (TRL). The required spare parts cause a large and increasing launch mass logistics burden. The assumed International Space Station (ISS) Environmental Control and Life Support (ECLS) technologies were developed for microgravity and therefore are not suitable for Mars gravity. Growing food requires more mass than sending food from Earth. The large number of spares is due to the relatively low reliability of ECLS and the low TRL of ISRU. The Mars One habitat design is similar to past concepts but does not incorporate current knowledge. The MIT architecture analysis tool for long-term settlements on the Martian surface includes an ECLS system simulation, an ISRU sizing model, and an analysis of required spares. The MIT tool showed the need for separate crop and crew chambers, the large spare parts logistics, that crops require more mass than Earth food, and that more spares are needed if reliability is lower. That ISRU has low TRL and ISS ECLS was designed for microgravity are well known. Interestingly, the results produced by the architecture analysis tool - separate crop chamber, large spares mass, large crop chamber mass, and low reliability requiring more spares - were also well known. A common approach to ECLS architecture analysis is to build a complex model that is intended to be all-inclusive and is hoped will help solve all design problems. Such models can struggle to replicate obvious and well-known results and are often unable to answer unanticipated new questions. A better approach would be to survey the literature for background knowledge and then directly analyze the important problems.

Mars mission↗

NASA NTRS1998

Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team

The Reference Mission was developed over a period of several years and was published in NASA Special Publication 6107 in July 1997. The purpose of the Reference Mission was to provide a workable model for the human exploration of Mars, which is described in enough detail that alternative strategies and implementations can be compared and evaluated. NASA is continuing to develop the Reference Mission and expects to update this report in the near future. It was the purpose of the Reference Mission to develop scenarios based on the needs of scientists and explorers who want to conduct research on Mars; however, more work on the surface-mission aspects of the Reference Mission is required and is getting under way. Some aspects of the Reference Mission that are important for the consideration of the surface mission definition include: (1) a split mission strategy, which arrives at the surface two years before the arrival of the first crew; (2) three missions to the outpost site over a 6-year period; (3) a plant capable of producing rocket propellant for lifting off Mars and caches of water, O, and inert gases for the life-support system; (4) a hybrid physico-chemical/bioregenerative life-support system, which emphasizes the bioregenerative system more in later parts of the scenario; (5) a nuclear reactor power supply, which provides enough power for all operations, including the operation of a bioregenerative life-support system as well as the propellant and consumable plant; (6) capability for at least two people to be outside the habitat each day of the surface stay; (7) telerobotic and human-operated transportation vehicles, including a pressurized rover capable of supporting trips of several days' duration from the habitat; (7) crew stay times of 500 days on the surface, with six-person crews; and (8) multiple functional redundancies to reduce risks to the crews on the surface. New concepts are being sought that would reduce the overall cost for this exploration program and reducing the risks that are indigenous to Mars exploration. Among those areas being explored are alternative space propulsion approaches, solar vs. nuclear power, and reductions in the size of crews.

Connolly, John↗

NASA NTRS2014

Application of Synthetic Biology to Bioregenerative Life Support for Human Spaceflight

The conversion of carbon dioxide into higher value products is a key challenge for the development of closed-loop life support systems for human space flight. Much of the past research on bioregenerative life support systems has focused on plant growth chambers as a solution for CO2 removal and O2 generation, but photosynthetic microorganisms may also have a role to play in these functions. Cyanobacteria have the advantages of relatively high CO2 fixation rates and fairly well-developed molecular biology tools, allowing for genetic engineering approaches to strain improvement. Manned missions to Mars or other targets beyond low Earth orbit will require advances in the nutritional systems for life support on these longer duration missions. A key challenge will likely be supplementing pre-packaged meals with specific nutrients that will be deficient due to problems in long-term storage or low abundance. Vitamin K is one such nutrient that may be important as a supplement. Production of vitamin K for nutrient supplementation during spaceflight will likely require genetic engineering of microorganisms to increase vitamin titers. A microbial bioreactor system that could efficiently convert CO2 to nutritional supplements would be a valuable component for a future advanced life support system. We are exploring biological systems to determine the feasibility of using bioreactors to convert CO2 to higher-value products. We are examining the performance of photosynthetic bacteria engineered to produce sugars, determining rates of production and reliability. We are also engineering microbes to produce higher titers of vitamin K and other potentially important nutrients. The results of this research will offer demonstrations of potential technologies that could be developed further in the future. This work will also provide valuable information for understanding basic science questions about the use of genetically engineered microbes in the microgravity environment.

Bioregenerative life support↗

NASA NTRS2009

The Concept and Experimental Investigation of CO2 and Steam Co-electrolysis for Resource Utilization in Space Exploration

CO2 acquisition and utilization technologies will have a vital role in determining sustained and affordable life support and in-situ fuel production architectures for human and robotic exploration of Moon and Mars. For long-term human exploration to be practical, reliable technologies have to be implemented to capture and chemically reduce the metabolic CO2 from the cabin air to restitute oxygen consumption. Technologies that facilitate the in-situ capture and conversion of atmospheric CO2 to fuel are essential for a viable human mission to Mars and their demonstration on the moon is critical as well. This paper describes the concept and experimental investigation of a CO2 capture and reduction system that comprises an adsorption compressor and a CO2 and steam co-electrolysis unit. The process products include oxygen for life support and Syngas (CO and H2) for synthetic fuel production. Electrochemical performance in terms of CO2 conversion, oxygen production, and power consumption of a system with a capacity to process 1kg CO2 per day (1-person equivalent) will be discussed.

Stoots, Carl↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Mass Economy Evaluation for Integrated ECLSS and Propulsion Architecture

As missions in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) lengthen and extend to deep space, minimizing resupply needs becomes vital for sustaining crewed operations. Traditional life support systems depend on consumables resupplied from Earth, a method that is increasingly impractical for missions beyond LEO, such as lunar outposts or Mars transit. Long-duration missions require more efficient, autonomous systems that can recycle essential resources, particularly water and oxygen, to minimize the frequency and mass of resupply missions. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is essential to such missions, with the International Space Station (ISS) serving as a testbed for advanced water recovery and partial oxygen recycling via physico-chemical methods. Yet, ECLSS and propulsion subsystems generally operate independently, despite overlapping requirements and potential areas for synergy. For instance, ECLSS byproducts, water, CO₂, and hydrogen, could be repurposed for propulsion, potentially reducing dedicated propellant mass and increasing overall system efficiency. One promising approach is to develop shared-resource architectures that integrate ECLSS with propulsion systems. This study examines the potential of such integration through the Sabatier CO₂ reduction process, focusing on water management as a key factor in system mass trade-offs. The Sabatier reaction produces water and methane from metabolic CO₂ and electrolytic hydrogen, partially closing the life support loop and providing methane, which could serve as a propellant. This integration could minimize waste, reduce resupply requirements, and enhance mission mass efficiency. A dynamic modeling framework will be used to simulate resource flows over long missions, capturing interactions between life support and propulsion. By comparing integrated versus separate system configurations, the study aims to quantify mass benefits and penalties, informing future habitat designs and trade studies for missions prioritizing autonomy and mass efficiency.

ECLSS↗

NASA NTRS2026

Mass Economy Evaluation for Integrated ECLSS and Propulsion Architecture

As missions in low Earth orbit (LEO) lengthen and extend to deep space, minimizing resupply needs becomes vital for sustaining crewed operations. Traditional life support systems depend on consumables resupplied from Earth, a method that is increasingly impractical for missions beyond LEO, such as lunar outposts or Mars transit. Long-duration missions require more efficient, autonomous systems that can recycle essential resources, particularly water and oxygen, to minimize the frequency and mass of resupply missions. The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) is essential to such missions, with the International Space Station (ISS) serving as a testbed for advanced water recovery and partial oxygen recycling via physico-chemical methods. Yet, ECLSS and propulsion subsystems generally operate independently, despite overlapping requirements and potential areas for synergy. For instance, ECLSS byproducts, water, CO 2 , and hydrogen, could be repurposed for propulsion, potentially reducing dedicated propellant mass and increasing overall system efficiency. One promising approach is to develop shared-resource architectures that integrate ECLSS with propulsion systems. This study examines the potential of such integration through the Sabatier CO₂ reduction process, focusing on water management as a key factor in system mass trade-offs. The Sabatier reaction produces water and methane from metabolic CO 2 and electrolytic hydrogen, partially closing the life support loop and providing methane, which could serve as a propellant. This integration could minimize waste, reduce resupply requirements, and enhance mission mass efficiency. A dynamic modeling framework will be used to simulate resource flows over long missions, capturing interactions between life support and propulsion. By comparing integrated versus separate system configurations, the study aims to quantify mass benefits and penalties, informing future habitat designs and trade studies for missions prioritizing autonomy and mass efficiency.

ECLSS↗

NASA NTRS2004

Effects of Subsurface Sampling & Processing on Martian Simulant Containing Varying Quantities of Water

The presence of water-ice in the Martian subsurface is a subject of much debate and excited speculation. Recent results from the gammaray spectrometer (GRS) on board NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft indicate the presence of large amounts of hydrogen in regions of predicted ice stability. The combination of chemistry, low gravitational field (3.71 m/s(exp 2)) and a surface pressure of about 6.36 mbar at the mean radius, place limits on the stability of H2O on the surface, however, results from the GRS indicate that the hydrogen rich phase may be present at a depth as shallow as one meter in some locations on Mars. The potential for water on Mars leads directly to the speculation that life may once have existed there, since liquid water is the unifying factor for environments known to support life on Earth. Lubricant-free drilling has been considered as a means of obtaining water-rich subsurface samples on Mars, and two recent white papers sponsored by the Mars Program have attempted to identify the problems associated with this goal. The two major issues identified were: the engineering challenges of drilling into a water-soil mixture where phase changes may occur; and the potential to compromise the integrity of in-situ scientific analysis due to contamination, volatilization, and mineralogical or chemical changes as a result of processing. This study is a first attempt to simulate lubricantfree drilling into JSC Mars-1 simulant containing up to 50% water by weight. The goal is to address the following: 1) Does sample processing cause reactions or changes in mineralogy which will compromise the interpretation of scientific measurements conducted on the surface? 2) Does the presence of water-ice in the sample complicate (1)? 3) Do lubricant-free drilling and processing leave trace contaminants which may compromise our understanding of sample composition? 4) How does the torque/power required for drilling change as a function of water content and does this lead to unexpected thermal effects?

Menard, J.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The NASA Open Science Data Repository: Biomedical Fair Data, Analysis Tools, User Communities, Publications, and Discoveries for Deep Space Missions

Increased biomedical risks and challenges associated with deep space missions require new knowledge discovery, new health countermeasures, and development of novel ecosystems, life support, crop production, and biomedical support capabilities. To meet NASA’s Moon to Mars strategic program goals for Human and Biological Sciences, findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable (FAIR), and maximally open-access data is going to be required to enable humanity to thrive in deep space. Indeed, this cornerstone perspective on FAIR and maximally open access data was also recommended in the recent 2023-2032 Decadal Survey from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The NASA Open Science Data Repository (OSDR) is a maximally open access and FAIR database, and meets various scientific, technical, and operational spaceflight needs. It offers public users and submitters the ability to upload, download, search, share, analyze, and visualize data across ‘omics, physiological, phenotypic, behavioral, bioimaging, video, and environmental monitoring telemetry datasets. OSDR includes NASA GeneLab, NASA Ames Life Sciences Data Archive, and the NASA Biological Institutional Scientific Collection. OSDR has >455 studies with datasets from model organisms and non-NASA human astronauts. There are ~12 datasets from the Inspiration 4 (I4) mission, spanning metagenomics, comprehensive metabolic panels, clonal hematopoiesis, spatial transcriptomics, proteomics, and cytokine panels. In the interest of data privacy, two I4 datasets have raw FASTQ and FASTA files relating to the epitranscriptome, and a new request feature is live in OSDR (with a backend review process established) which was developed based on industry norms. OSDR also recently began a collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA) to scientifically curate and make available >200 terabytes of human and model organism space-relevant data. The OSDR submission portal is designed to ingest and curate ~25 ‘omics assay data types, and ~50 physiological-phenotypic-imaging assay data types, spanning ultrasonography, micro-computed tomography, histology, morphometric photography, rebound tonometry, gait analysis, optical coherence tomography, novel object recognition, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry. A suite of analysis tools are available for OSDR users including: 1) an Environmental Data Application to compare radiation, CO2, relative humidity, temperature, and other telemetry across missions and subjects, 2) the RadLab database, a collaboration between NASA, ESA, the German and Italian Space Agencies, and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, which compiles radiation measurements relevant to human spaceflight and provides tools for accessing and manipulating the data, and 3) a Multi-study visualization tool which enables users to look across and combine GeneLab’s omics datasets across different experiments and missions. There are ~600 volunteer OSDR Analysis Working Group (AWG) members who: 1) provide feedback on scientific standards for reuse (subject and assay metadata; processing pipelines; dataset formats and uniformed structures for machine-readability), and 2) collaborate to mine-reuse OSDR data conducting scientific analysis. OSDR has enabled 60 publications as of September 2023, many directly from AWG collaborations most notably the Cell Press package in 2020. Lastly, there are at least 15 articles which mine OSDR data part of a package of ~50 articles across Nature Portfolio with research stemming from I4, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, NASA Space Biology, and the NASA Human Research Program.

space biology↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA Open Science Data Repository: Biomedical FAIR Data, Analysis Tools, User Communities, and Discoveries for Deep Space Missions

open access↗

NASA NTRS2004

Drilling to Extract Liquid Water on Mars: Feasible and Worth the Investment

A critical application for the success of the Exploration Mission is developing cost effective means to extract resources from the Moon and Mars needed to support human exploration. Water is the most important resource in this regard, providing a critical life support consumable, the starting product of energy rich propellants, energy storage media (e.g. fuel cells), and a reagent used in virtually all manufacturing processes. Water is adsorbed and chemically bound in Mars soils, ice is present near the Martian surface at high latitudes, and water vapor is a minor atmospheric constituent, but extracting meaningful quantities requires large complex mechanical systems, massive feedstock handling, and large energy inputs. Liquid water aquifers are almost certain to be found at a depth of several kilometers on Mars based on our understanding of the average subsurface thermal gradient, and geological evidence from recent Mars missions suggests liquid water may be present much closer to the surface at some locations. The discovery of hundreds of recent water-carved gullies on Mars indicates liquid water can be found at depths of 200-500 meters in many locations. Drilling to obtain liquid water via pumping is therefore feasible and could lower the cost and improve the return of Mars exploration more than any other ISRU technology on the horizon. On the Moon, water ice may be found in quantity in permanently shadowed regions near the poles.

Stoker, C.↗

NASA NTRS1972

Advanced extravehicular protective systems study, volume 1

An appraisal was made of advanced portable and emergency life support systems concepts for space station, space shuttle, lunar base, and Mars EVA missions. Specifications are given, and the methodology is described. Subsystem studies and systems integration efforts are summarized. Among the conclusions are the following: (1) For long duration missions, a configuration incorporating a regenerable CO2 control subsystem and a thermal control subsystem utilizing a minimum of expendables decreases the vehicle penalty of present configurations. (2) For shorter duration missions, a configuration incorporating an expendable water thermal control subsystem is the most competitive subsystem; regenerable CO2 control subsystems if properly developed are competitive with nonregenerable counterparts. (3) The CO2 reduction and oxygen reclamation withing the parent vehicle is only competitive when there are three or more parent vehicle resupply periods. (4) For long duration emergency systems of one hour or more, inherent redundancy within the primary configuration to provide emergency thermal control is the most competitive approach.

Sutton, J. G.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Volatiles Evolved from Soybean Products Intended for Use in Long Duration Space Missions

Soybeans have been baselined to be grown in a habitat (Advanced Life Support Systems Integration Test Bed, ALSSITB) intended for evaluating advanced life support systems developed for long duration missions to the Moon or Mars. The ALSSITB is being constructed at NASA-Johnson Space Center and is composed of 5 chambers (4.6 m x 11.3 m each) and an airlock joined by an interconnecting tunnel (3.7 m x 19.2 m). Processed soy products such as soy milk and soy bread are planned to be incorporated into a nutritionally sound, plant-based food system. Since all consumables will be recycled and reused, volatile compounds evolved during the manufacturing of these food products need to be quantified to assess their impact on this closed loop system. Soy milk was made in a prototype machine and bread in a commercial bread baking machine. These machines were each placed in a tightly closed chamber and, at the completion of the process, air volatiles were identified and quantified by GC/MS. For soy milk, ethanol, acetaldehyde, methanol, hexanal, propanal and acetone and for soybread, acetaldehyde, ethanol, N-propanol and ethyl acetate were detected in significant quantities. The crew members will spend an average of 180 days in the ALSSITB and it was estimated that 138 batches of soy milk will be processed in the tunnel and 130 loaves of soybread would be baked in the habitat chamber during their stay. The aforementioned volatiles would surpass the 180 day Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations (SMACs) if no means of scrubbing are adapted which would lead to toxic levels of these compounds. Therefore, sufficient means for eliminating the contribution of volatiles evolved from food processing and preparation equipment needs to be provided in the ALSSITB.

Vodovotz, Yael↗