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DOE OSTI2021

Depowering of Batteries to Reduce Cost of Ownership

(1) Executive Summary: End of life batteries (EOLBs) present a cost and safety liability for their owners and stakeholders. This is due flammability, energy, and power with EOLBs. Current approaches include cumbersome, expensive packaging, specialized shipping, regulated storage, and they are responsible for over half of the cost of recycling. They all expensively and inadequately address symptoms. OnTo has developed and proven a simple way to resolve the problem systemically, through depowering of lithium-ion batteries (and most any battery other than lead). The low-cost process removes flammability, power, and energy in EOLBs through non-toxic chemical processing. The opportunity for commerce of inert scrap is at least $5 billion greater than the commerce in hazardous scrap, all made possible through OnTo’s technology for efficiency and safety. (2) Depowering Improves Safety and Decreases Cost of Battery Ownership: OnTo’s depowering technology will remove half of the cost of EOLB management and recycling. Without this technology, EOLB recycling will always be a liability. EOLB is hazardous due to inherent flammability of electrolyte and lithium. The shipping and commerce of EOLBs is costly and dangerous all along the chain of custody from owner, dealership/shop, shipper, second-life sorter, (shipper again), and finally to the destination facility recycler. OnTo’s depowering service renders inert most any EOLB packs, modules, and cells. The technology uses a brief, non-toxic treatment applicable to most any chemistry. The industry needs a safe, simple, modular, and inexpensive method to render EOLBs as inert scrap. OnTo’s deactivation system is scalable to the needs of any customer along the EOLB chain of custody. (3) Evidence of Successful Depowering: Untreated batteries will catch fire and explode under abuse conditions such as heat or crush. Slide 2 below shows that untreated batteries will blow-up and expel their internal components with heating, after OnTo’s depowering treatment, the same battery is inert with the same heat treatment (Fig. 7 in the slide). Depowering also removes electrolyte reactivity, eliminating the production of HF and other toxins (Fig 6. in the slide) The depowering process is applicable to large, 26 Ah cells. Fig. 5 in the slide shows the removal of all the electrolyte from whole cells. Removal of flammable material from an EOLB contributes to the inert behavior. OnTo developed this technology through a project supported by the US Department of Energy EERE program, with partners including Seattle King County Metro Transit. While OnTo has generated evidence of successful depowering of batteries, in 2020, a follow-on voucher opportunity for third party analysis of depowered cells and materials was approved through CalTestBed. The expertise of the battery and materials research groups at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory will characterize these depowered cells to provide better understanding of the materials level changes in depowering. (4) Pilot Plant for Depowering EOLBs: Making the spoke work in hub-and-spoke While other companies are marketing the hub-and-spoke approach for recycling EOLBs, they rely on dangerous, expensive shredding methods with flimsy IP protection. OnTo offers the only patented, proven ability to depower EOLBs from most any chemistry – at half of the capital cost required for shredding, while eliminating the liability, danger, and waste streams inherent with shredding. The proposed commercial pilot facility is (5) OnTo Technology LLC Company: OnTo develops advanced battery recycling innovations that produce manufacturing quality electrode materials from recycled batteries. Their patented Cathode-healing™ and Deactivation/Depowering processes improve safety and reduce the cost of recycling. OnTo’s breakthrough technologies produce advanced materials for manufacturing batteries useful in applications from portable power to electric vehicles. Contact: Steve Sloop OnTo Technology LLC, 63221 Service Road, STE F, Bend, OR 97703, ssloop@onto-technology.com , 541-389-7897

deactivation↗

DOE OSTI2023

Packaged Combined Heat and Power Technology Overview and Market Profile

Combined heat and power (CHP), sometimes referred to as cogeneration, is an efficient and clean approach to generating electric power and useful thermal energy onsite from a single fuel source, offering reliable and affordable energy services to businesses and institutions. Furthermore, CHP provides a cost effective opportunity to improve the environmental footprint and resilience of industrial and commercial facilities across the United States. CHP equipment can be custom-engineered or installed as a predesigned and assembled package. A packaged CHP system is a standardized, pre-engineered system that includes all equipment, piping, wiring, and ancillary components to deliver electricity and thermal energy to a host facility with minimal onsite engineering and design time. Packaged CHP systems can be shipped as single or multiple modules with standard interconnections (e.g., fuel; electrical; thermal—hot water, steam, and/or chilled water), which simplifies installation and reduces the costs associated with the project. Most containerized or single packaged CHP system offerings range from 10 kW to 3 MW in capacity. Packaged CHP systems are extending the operating, efficiency, and emissions benefits of CHP to nontraditional markets in commercial, institutional, multifamily, light manufacturing, government, and military applications. These markets tend to be served by smaller systems (less than 5 MW) that are conducive to pre-engineered packaging and/or modularization. Many of these sectors have limited CHP experience and technical resources to adequately evaluate, install, and maintain onsite CHP systems. The introduction of packaged CHP offerings from experienced CHP Packagers and Solution Providers has accelerated CHP adoption, lowered energy costs, reduced emissions, and strengthened energy resilience in these sectors. In 2019, the US Department of Energy (DOE) launched the Packaged CHP eCatalog to promote increased acceptance of efficient, cost-effective CHP in these applications. The Packaged CHP eCatalog is a web-based, searchable platform that hosts DOE-recognized packaged CHP systems with features designed to reduce economic and performance risks for designers, developers, owners, and facility operators interested in installing CHP. DOE established the Packaged CHP Accelerator at the same time to help launch and publicize the eCatalog, and to validate project performance, cost, and installation time of CHP packages across a variety of applications. Accelerator efforts documented installed cost reductions and installation time reductions of more than 20% for packaged CHP systems over 100 kW compared with custom-engineered systems. The Packaged CHP Accelerator and eCatalog established a peer-to-peer network connecting public and private sector partners including utilities, state energy offices, and energy efficiency program administrators interested in promoting cost-effective, efficient CHP systems, Packagers, and Solution Providers. Feedback from these partners, along with input from DOE’s CHP Technical Assistance Partnerships (CHP TAPs), was critical in understanding the current market for packaged CHP technologies, stimulating investment in these technologies, and guiding future directions for packaged CHP systems and their applications. This report provides background on packaged CHP systems, an overview of their benefits, a profile of current packaged CHP installations, and a summary of future market trends; this report is intended for facility owners, project developers, engineers, policymakers, and other stakeholders looking to increase the adoption of efficient, flexible, and resilient packaged CHP systems.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Unlocking Manufacturing Sustainability: Energy Efficiency Opportunities through the US Department of Energy’s Better Plants Program Energy Treasure Hunts (2023–2024)

The US manufacturing sector faces critical challenges: improving sustainability, reducing energy consumption, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Energy Treasure Hunt (ETH) training, a service provided by the US Department of Energy’s Better Plants program, offers a compelling solution. Although ETHs have traditionally focused on energy and cost savings, data indicate that ETHs can be used to identify opportunities to reduce emissions and water use and to support a sustainable and circular operation. These 3-day on-site events engage employees in a collaborative search for operational and maintenance efficiency improvement opportunities. The success of ETHs lies in a comprehensive methodology. Each phase in an ETH uses various tools and resources to empower employees to identify practical solutions. This study presents data from 13 ETHs conducted between 2023 and 2024 across diverse manufacturing subsectors in the United States and demonstrates that the events can help create a pragmatic decarbonization pathway. Through the events, a total of 234 energy and emissions reduction opportunities were identified, and the potential impact is significant. Implementing the recommendations could translate to annual savings of 497,299 MMBtu of energy, 64,374 kgal of water, and 4.85 million tCO 2 e of emissions. The fiscal savings from the proposed recommendations translate into nearly $\$$5 million annually. This study identifies the opportunities by energy system type and by the specific actions recommended, while also analyzing the identified opportunities, presenting the most established sustainability recommendations. Case studies from participating partners are presented to further demonstrate that ETHs provide a practical and impactful approach to reducing energy consumption, emissions, and operating costs and promote a more sustainable future for the industrial sector.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Efficiency of natural pozzolans, ground glasses and coal bottom ashes in mitigating sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction

The use of pozzolans to partially replace Portland cement in concrete has generally demonstrated beneficial impacts on the durability characteristics of concrete for decades. In this paper a diverse range of pozzolans including natural pozzolans, ground glasses and industrial by-products such as coal ash (fly ash and bottom ash) and silica fume were investigated for their synergistic potential in binary or ternary blends with Portland cement in improving resistance to chemical sulfate attack and alkali-silica reaction (ASR). It is generally considered that pozzolans improve most of the durability issues encountered in concrete, including reducing the risk of sulfate attack or ASR. But this is not always the case. For example, it was found that ground glasses were very efficient in improving sulfate resistance, but their ability to mitigate expansion due to ASR was dictated by the equivalent alkalis content (Na{sub 2}O{sub e}) of the glass and high-alkali soda glass was generally not effective in this role. On the other hand, metakaolin, a highly reactive pozzolan, was highly effective in reducing ASR expansion, but may actually increase the damage due to sulfate attack when used at moderate replacement levels. Most pozzolans, such as low-CaO coal fly ash and ground coal bottom ash, silica fume, and pumice, were effective in controlling expansion due to both ASR and sulfate attack. The results demonstrated that the extent of the positive impact of using natural pozzolans on both properties was variable. The pozzolanic reactivity of materials alone was an unreliable indicator to assess the ability of the pozzolan to suppress expansion due to sulfate attack or ASR.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Enhancement of phase change material hysteresis model: A case study of modeling building envelope in EnergyPlus

Nowadays, buildings are expected to offer demand side services to the power grid to enhance the electrical load flexibility, which leads to the concepts of grid-interactive efficient buildings (GEBs). Phase change material (PCM)-based thermal energy storage has seen increasing attention in recent years for peak load shifting of grid-interactive efficient buildings (GEBs). Numerical models are critical tools for design and evaluation of PCM-integrated systems. Most industrial-grade PCMs are reported to melt/freeze over a temperature range instead of at a unique temperature. Such thermal hysteresis effect significantly affects the reliability of simulation results because not only the heat transfer process depends on melting and freezing temperatures, the PCM thermal properties change significantly during the phase change process as well. This study is aimed to develop a model for the PCMs used in the building envelope with the capability to accurately simulate hysteretic behaviors. Further, this model is based on a two-phase assumption and is implemented in a whole building energy performance simulation program (i.e., EnergyPlus). A comparison between numerical results and experimental data shows that during a complete phase transition, the two-phase model could achieve a good agreement with the experimental data. During a partial phase transition, the two-phase model could lead to significant improvements compared to other alternative PCM models, including the existing PCM model in EnergyPlus. Last, whole building simulations were performed to study this model's performance regarding heating/cooling loads and zone mean air temperature of a given building. The results show that the difference in hourly heating/cooling loads introduced by the models was less than 1% in design conditions, while significant changes were observed in both hourly heating/cooling loads and zone mean air temperature when the PCM envelope underwent partial phase transition processes.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Future energy infrastructure, energy platform and energy storage

Today fossil energy dominates energy consumption across the world. There has been an increasing momentum to reduce fossil energy consumption and increase renewable energy utilization to more than 70%. Such high penetrations of distributed renewable resources bring large uncertainty and complexity that cannot be easily handled by the current infrastructure. For the last two decades, telecommunication industry has gone through a similar transition from centralized to distributed systems, and more recently to platform approaches, which become the corner stone of today’s vibrant platform economy. Based on telecommunication history, we believe that a platform-based approach, called the energy platform, is a viable solution for addressing the renewable energy challenges. The energy platform consists of an array of computational algorithms, sensing and control technologies for key industry, energy generators and users to jointly manage and control the complex energy infrastructure. It includes the following key components: (1) the hardware and software to generate, store, control and transmit electricity/data (the energy cloud), (2) the digital platforms and tools for key energy producers, digital, service and communication industry to share the assets, participate in and manage the complex infrastructure, and for customers to participate in energy transactions, (3) the transaction platform for new service and business models. Additionally, the energy platform requires breakthroughs in large scale energy storage and many other areas including efficient power electronics, sensors and controls, new mathematical and computational tools, and deep integration of energy technologies and information sciences to control and stabilize such complex chaotic systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2021

A National Roadmap for Grid-Interactive Efficient Buildings

The way electricity is generated and consumed in the US is quickly changing, including in terms of the rapid growth in variable power generation resources and the need for large-scale investments to replace aging infrastructure and modernize the grid. Buildings that coordinate electricity use with grid conditions are a flexible and cost-effective resource to address the evolving power system challenges. Outfitted with smart technologies, GEBs are energy-efficient buildings with smart technologies characterized by the active use of distributed energy resources to optimize energy use for grid services, occupant needs and preferences, and cost reductions in a continuous and integrated way. In doing so, GEBs can play a key role in promoting greater affordability, resilience, environmental performance, and reliability. The report finds that, over the next two decades, GEBs could deliver between $100 and $200 billion in savings to the US power system and cut CO 2 emissions by 80 million tons per year by 2030, or 6% of total power sector CO 2 emissions. The report also provides 14 recommendations for addressing the top barriers to overcome barriers to GEB adoption and deployment.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2023

InSPIRE 2.0 (Final Technical Report)

Co-locating solar projects and agriculture can provide mutual benefits to local farmers (e.g., dual revenue streams, increased yields from pollinator services, irrigation reductions) and to the solar projects (e.g., reduced timeline/costs for installation and O&M, expanded market, increased PV efficiency from a cooler, vegetated microclimate). While prior work sought to demonstrate the feasibility of agricultural co-location (or "agrivoltaic") opportunities, there is a fundamental gap in data available to developers, landowners, and state agencies that prevents widespread deployment of these mutually beneficial practices. This project addressed this gap by (1) establishing a stakeholder research working group composed of multi-sector industry leaders and academics to provide guidance and assist with outreach; (2) undertaking targeted field-based research projects evaluating solar and agriculture co-location tradeoffs; (3) conducting analysis and modeling studies that complement the field-based research; and (4) developing a data portal to consolidate all data on this topic in one location.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Noble Liquid Test Facility at Fermilab

The Noble Liquid Test Facility (NLTF) at Fermilab is a liquid argon detector R\&D facility open to the national and international HEP community. The facility consists of 4 permanent cryostats, ranging from 250L up to 3000L, open space for small open dewar testing, and an optical test stand facility capable of measuring the optical properties of materials and characterizing photon detectors. NLTF’s strongest advantage is its capability to provide ultra-pure LAr in a reliable manner. Its inline filters are capable of filtering all of the three biggest contaminants for standard LAr detectors, O$_2$ and H$_2$O down to $< 1$ppb and N$_2$ $< 1$ppm. This is critical for the users of the test stands as small levels of impurities can dramatically change the efficiency of LArTPCs for the collection of charge and light. The smallest cryostat is mainly used for material testing, a service provided to the international HEP community interested in understanding how the introduction of a specific material might affect the electron lifetime in LAr. The test stands can be equipped with a purity monitor, which allows measuring the electron lifetime in real time, as well as gas sampling and analyzing, and in the near future, local recirculation and filtering. The facility has hosted many successful R\&D projects, which have published their results in well-known journals and talks. A few examples of such projects are: NIR light production in LAr and GAr, the characterization of VUV metalenses, the testing of new filter media capable of filtering N$_2$ from LAr, high voltage studies and direct charge amplification in LAr, and various doping studies.

Blaszczyk, Flor María [Fermilab]↗

DOE OSTI2021

Nontargeted vs. Targeted vs. Smart Load Shifting Using Heat Pump Water Heaters

Deployment of CTA-2045–enabled devices is increasing in the U.S. market. These devices allow utilities or third-party aggregators to control appliance energy use in homes, and could also be applied to end uses in small commercial buildings. This study focuses on a field study using CTA-2045–enabled water heaters to shift electric load off the peak and toward periods when renewable resources are more prevalent (e.g., near noon for solar resources and near midnight for wind resources). The following load shifting strategies were compared to understand effects on the aggregate load-shifting capabilities of Heat Pump Water Heaters (HPWHs) and on consumer hot water supply: non-targeted (traditional), targeted (grouped, with different shifting schedules) and “smart” (adaptive control commands). The results of this study show that targeted and smart control strategies yield significantly more load-shifting potential from a population of water heaters than the non-targeted approach without sacrificing hot water supply to occupants. However, as control commands become more aggressive, aggregators may face challenges in meeting consumer hot water demand. Furthermore, the findings and lessons learned can benefit electric utilities and inform updates to manufacturer controls and communications standards. The data collected may also be useful for developing and validating HPWH models.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Chilling Effects of Administrative Burden on Efficiency Policy Uptake: Examining the Case of Federal ESAs

Utilizing policies and programs which incentivize energy efficiency or on-site renewables is difficult. The challenges and costs associated with researching these policies, interacting with their providers, and ensuring regulatory compliance can be collectively referred to as administrative burden. To better understand the impact of administrative burden on energy efficiency policies, we investigated the administrative burden associated with energy sales arrangements (ESA). ESAs are a contracting vehicle related to energy savings performance contracts where an energy services company designs and constructs a renewable energy system at a federal site, transferring ownership of those generating assets to the site after a 20-year term. We conducted a series of in-depth interviews with a variety of relevant ESA stakeholders, including federal project managers, subject matter experts, and energy service companies. We then augmented these interviews with a review of the relevant literature. This research indicated that the current level of administrative burden decreases the adoption of renewable energy through ESAs by the federal government by raising upfront costs, depressing project attempts due to complexity, and introducing delays and challenges in successfully implemented projects. This chilling effect is especially pronounced in new policy vehicles and with inexperienced implementers. Findings from the specific case of ESAs can be generalized to other types of energy policy including efficiency programs. Policy makers decrease the efficacy of initiatives through increased administrative burden, and these effects will be most pronounced in programs with novel design or targeted at unfamiliar audiences.

Newkirk, Alex↗

DOE OSTI2022

A Q-Learning-Based Approach for Distributed Beam Scheduling in mmWave Networks

We consider the problem of distributed downlink beam scheduling and power allocation for millimeter-Wave (mmWave) cellular networks where multiple base stations (BSs) belonging to different service operators share the same unlicensed spectrum with no centralized control or explicit coordination among them. Our goal is to design efficient distributed beam scheduling and power allocation schemes such that the network-level payoff, defined as the weighted sum of the total throughput and a power penalization term, can be maximized. To this end, we propose a distributed scheduling approach to power allocation and adaptation for efficient interference management over the shared spectrum by modeling each BS as an independent Q-learning agent. As a baseline, we compare the proposed approach to the state-of-the-art non-cooperative game-based approach which was previously developed for the same problem. We conduct extensive experiments under various scenarios to verify the effect of multiple factors on the performance of both approaches. Experiment results show that the proposed approach adapts well to different interference conditions by learning from experience and thus can achieve higher payoff than the game-based approach. The proposed approach can also be integrated into our previously developed Lyapunov stochastic optimization framework for the purpose of network utility maximization with optimality guarantee. As a result, the weights in the payoff function can be automatically and optimally determined by the virtual queue values from the sub-problems derived from the Lyapunov optimization framework.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Economic, Exergy, and Environmental Analyses of the Energy Assessments for U.S. Industries

Abstract This paper highlights the expected versus actual outcomes of 152 energy assessments that were performed between 2011 and 2020. The 1317 energy-assessment recommendations (ARs) are grouped into eight categories. This study adopted four measures per each category of recommendations: annual electricity savings, annual gas savings, annual cost savings, and annual CO2 emission reduction. The first part of the analysis compares the expected to the actually implemented values of the measures applied to each recommendation’s category. It was found that the percentages of the actual to the expected electricity, gas, and cost savings are 26.6%, 11.4%, and 17.1%, respectively, while the percentage of the actual to the expected CO2 reduction is 22%. Moreover, the second part of the analysis presents each category's implementation rate and the reasons for rejecting the unimplemented ARs. Cash flow and expensive initial investment resulted in rejecting 25% of ARs. Furthermore, the study proposes techniques and strategies to increase ARs’ implementation rate and improve private energy services companies’ implementation rate. Finally, exergy analysis is added to show the improvement that energy assessment achieves regarding exergy and exergy efficiencies of different industrial applications.

Energy & Fuels↗

DOE OSTI2024

Continuous thermostat setpoint monitoring and correction (Thermostat setpoint correction) v1.0

The Continuous Thermostat Setpoint Monitoring and Correction software is a set of fault detection and correction algorithms that can be implemented in thermostats with two-way OpenAPIs. It is written in the Python language. The algorithms aim to detect the most common and impactful efficiency problems associated with thermostat setpoints - overly aggressive heating or cooling setpoints, incorrect schedules/setbacks, and overly narrow deadbands. These algorithms can automatically detect faults, and implement associated corrective actions to bring the system back to a state of efficient operation. The algorithms can run remotely in the cloud, and directly implemented by connected thermostat manufacturers, or by third party service providers. The software enables a lightweight cost-effective energy management strategy for HVAC systems. The solution is specially viable for small and medium sized commercial buildings, where a full scale building automation system and fault detection and diagnostic tools are often unavailable.

Granderson, Jessica↗

DOE OSTI2020

SMART Mobility. Advanced Fueling Infrastructure Capstone Report

The U.S. Department of Energy’s Systems and Modeling for Accelerated Research in Transportation (SMART) Mobility Consortium is a multiyear, multi-laboratory collaborative, managed by the Energy Efficient Mobility Systems Program of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Vehicle Technologies Office, dedicated to further understanding the energy implications and opportunities of advanced mobility technologies and services. The first three-year research phase of SMART Mobility occurred from 2017 through 2019 and included five research pillars: Connected and Automated Vehicles, Mobility Decision Science, Multi-Modal Freight, Urban Science, and Advanced Fueling Infrastructure. A sixth research thrust integrated aspects of all five pillars to develop a SMART Mobility Modeling Workflow to evaluate new transportation technologies and services at scale. This report summarizes the work of the Advanced Fueling Infrastructure Pillar. This Pillar investigated the charging infrastructure needs of electric ride-hailing and car-sharing vehicles, automated shuttle buses, and freight-delivery truck fleets. For information about the other Pillars and about the SMART Mobility Modeling Workflow, please refer to the relevant Pillar’s Capstone Report.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

The Storage of Marine Hydrokinetic Power through Hydrogen Production

Marine hydrokinetic (MHK) power is likely to play a crucial role in future energy diversification and remote energy supply efforts. Providing a means of direct energy storage for MHK power would provide additional benefits to applications in ship microgrids and remote communities. Hydrogen (H 2 ) has long been pursued as a means of green energy storage and can be generated through electrolysis of water in an electrolyzer. However, electrolyzer technology for H 2 production is currently only possible on the commercial scale using fresh water, also a precious resource in our society. The direct electrolysis of seawater would alleviate the fresh water constraints for a new H 2 feedstock and a seawater-fed electrolyzer could be powered locally at a MHK platform. Several technical challenges exist before efficient direct seawater electrolysis can be realized. This project was designed as a demonstration of efficient direct seawater electrolysis that limits chlorine evolution, avoids use of platinum (Pt) group metals and overcomes cathode fouling over long service times.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Chemically Enabled CO 2 -Enhanced Oil Recovery in Multi-Porosity, Hydrothermally Altered Carbonates in the Southern Michigan Basin (Final Technical Report)

This is the Final Technical Report for the project "Chemically Enabled CO 2 -Enhanced Oil Recovery in Multi-Porosity, Hydrothermally Altered Carbonates in the Southern Michigan Basin." Over the course of six years of collaboration between Battelle and project partners, all stated objectives of the program have been completed, including full geological characterization of the TBR trend (See companion report for Task2), laboratory and modeling experiments to determine the optimum composition and design of CO 2 -EOR operations in the TBR trend, execution of a field test of chemically-enhanced CO 2 in a TBR well, and integration of the data and learnings gathered during these efforts into a full-trend development plan. Detailed reporting on these activities, their outcomes, and implications for trend-wide development is provided in the report. This report and encompassed data will provide TBR field operators with detailed information on what worked, what did not work, and how to proceed with production optimization of their TBR assets using chemically-enhanced CO 2 -EOR. CO 2 -EOR is a relatively well understood and broadly implemented strategy for increasing incremental production across the oil and gas industry, but its application has been primarily focused on reservoirs with limited heterogeneity. The intention of this project was show first that the same physical mechanisms that improve recovery factors in homogeneous reservoirs (namely wettability alteration, viscosity alteration, oil swelling, and mobility control) are at play in heterogeneous reservoirs. This was proven by the project’s laboratory studies and dynamic simulations, with the potential exception of mobility control, which needs further study. The second intention was to demonstrate via direct field testing that CO 2 -EOR can work in a strongly heterogeneous reservoir. While the field test strategy implemented during this project did not succeed in producing oil, data gathered during the test sheds light on what may work for field operators who try chemically-enhanced CO 2 -EOR within their own reservoirs, significantly reducing the level of uncertainty carried by first-of-a-kind commercial efforts that could (and should) follow this test. Simultaneously, the project has identified several large-volume ethanol plants and other sources of CO 2 emissions in the region and provided a handrail that CO 2 emitters and field operators can leverage to capture, transport, and inject that CO 2 into their fields. This project has also shown that, in many cases, the economics of CO 2 -EOR in the TBR are attractive. And finally, by completing a project of this scope in the southern Michigan Basin, the project has contributed to the knowledge base and operational experience of field operators, state regulatory agencies, local service companies, and state universities, with CO 2 -EOR projects which should allow follow-on projects to proceed safely and efficiently.

02 PETROLEUM↗

DOE OSTI2023

A Multi-Dimensional Benefit Assessment of Automated Mobility Platforms (AMP) for Large Facilities: Mobility, Energy, Equity, and Facility Management & Design

The goal of the automated mobility platforms (AMPs) initiative is to raise the bar of service regarding equity and sustainability for public mobility systems that are crucial to large facilities, and doing so using electrified, energy efficient technology. Using airports as an example, the rapid growth in air travel demand has led to facility expansions and congested terminals, which directly impacts equity (e.g., increased challenges for Passengers with Reduced Mobility [PRMs]) and sustainability - both of which are important metrics often overlooked during the engineering design process. Therefore, to evaluate systems and inform critical near- and long-term decisions more effectively, a holistic evaluation framework is proposed focused on four key areas: (1) mobility, with emphasis on travel time and accessibility within an airport, (2) environment, focused on energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with intra-airport mobility, (3) equity, specifically to the PRM community, but with an eye to the whole of society, and (4) built environment, or the fundamental changes in building design enabled by different mobility systems for larger and more flexible, functional, and energy-efficient structures. Below, AMPs are defined, and each metric is discussed further, all with a focus on airport mobility.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗