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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1991

Determination of lunar ilmenite abundances from remotely sensed data

The mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3) was found in abundance in lunar mare soils returned during the Apollo project. Lunar ilmenite often contains greater than 50 weight-percent titanium dioxide (TiO2), and is a primary potential resource for oxygen and other raw materials to supply future lunar bases. Chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the returned lunar soils produced an empirical function that relates the spectral reflectance ratio at 400 and 560 nm to the weight percent abundance of TiO2. This allowed mapping of the lunar TiO2 distribution using telescopic vidicon multispectral imaging from the ground; however, the time variant photometric response of the vidicon detectors produced abundance uncertainties of at least 2 to 5 percent. Since that time, solid-state charge-coupled device (CCD) detector technology capable of much improved photometric response has become available. An investigation of the lunar TiO2 distribution was carried out utilizing groundbased telescopic CCD multispectral imagery and spectroscopy. The work was approached in phases to develop optimum technique based upon initial results. The goal is to achieve the best possible TiO2 abundance maps from the ground as a precursor to lunar orbiter and robotic sample return missions, and to produce a better idea of the peak abundances of TiO2 for benefaction studies. These phases and the results are summarized.

Larson, Stephen M.↗
DOE OSTI2022

Using host galaxy spectroscopy to explore systematics in the standardization of Type Ia supernovae

We use stacked spectra of the host galaxies of photometrically identified Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) from the Dark Energy Survey (DES) to search for correlations between Hubble diagram residuals and the spectral properties of the host galaxies. Utilizing full spectrum fitting techniques on stacked spectra binned by Hubble residual, we find no evidence for trends between Hubble residuals and properties of the host galaxies that rely on spectral absorption features (<1.3σ), such as stellar population age, metallicity, and mass-to-light ratio. However, we find significant trends between the Hubble residuals and the strengths of [O ii] (4.4σ) and the Balmer emission lines (3σ). These trends are weaker than the well-known trend between Hubble residuals and host galaxy stellar mass (7.2σ) that is derived from broad-band photometry. After light-curve corrections, we see fainter SNe Ia residing in galaxies with larger line strengths. We also find a trend (3σ) between Hubble residual and the Balmer decrement (a measure of reddening by dust) using H β and H γ. The trend, quantified by correlation coefficients, is slightly more significant in the redder SNe Ia, suggesting that the bluer SNe Ia are relatively unaffected by dust in the interstellar medium of the host and that dust contributes to current Hubble diagram scatter impacting the measurement of cosmological parameters.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Enhancing weak lensing redshift distribution characterization by optimizing the Dark Energy Survey Self-Organizing Map Photo-z method

Characterization of the redshift distribution of ensembles of galaxies is pivotal for large scale structure cosmological studies. In this work, we focus on improving the Self-Organizing Map (SOM) methodology for photometric redshift estimation (SOMPZ), specifically in anticipation of the Dark Energy Survey Year 6 (DES Y6) data. This data set, featuring deeper and fainter galaxies than DES Year 3 (DES Y3), demands adapted techniques to ensure accurate recovery of the underlying redshift distribution. We investigate three strategies for enhancing the existing SOM-based approach used in DES Y3: 1) Replacing the Y3 SOM algorithm with one tailored for redshift estimation challenges; 2) Incorporating $\textit{g}$-band flux information to refine redshift estimates (i.e. using $\textit{griz}$ fluxes as opposed to only $\textit{riz}$); 3) Augmenting redshift data for galaxies where available. These methods are applied to DES Y3 data, and results are compared to the Y3 fiducial ones. Our analysis indicates significant improvements with the first two strategies, notably reducing the overlap between redshift bins. By combining strategies 1 and 2, we have successfully managed to reduce redshift bin overlap in DES Y3 by up to 66$\%$. Conversely, the third strategy, involving the addition of redshift data for selected galaxies as an additional feature in the method, yields inferior results and is abandoned. Our findings contribute to the advancement of weak lensing redshift characterization and lay the groundwork for better redshift characterization in DES Year 6 and future stage IV surveys, like the Rubin Observatory.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
NASA NTRS1989

Radial velocity studies and absolute parameters of contact binaries. II - OO Aquilae

New high-precision radial velocities of the contact binary OO Aql have been obtained using the cross-correlation technique. The orbital elements have been corrected for proximity effects, using an analysis of published light curves of the system. The spectroscopically determined mass ratio of 0.843 is in excellent agreement with the photometrically determined value. OO Aql thus has one of the largest mass ratios observed for a contact binary. In contrast to almost all other contact binaries of G spectral type, the primary minimum is due to a transit by the less massive component, and thus the system is classified as an A-type contact binary. Absolute parameters are determined for OO Aql, which indicate that the primary component, although similar to the Sun in mass, is significantly more evolved. An age of about 8 Gyr and a metal abundance of one-half that of the Sun are determined. It seems that the system may have only recently evolved into contact, as suggested by Mochnacki, and that it is an important object for studies of the structure and evolution of contact binaries.

Hrivnak, Bruce J.↗
NASA NTRS1993

An intercomparison of aircraft instrumentation for tropospheric measurements of carbonyl sulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon disulfide

This paper reports results of NASA's Chemical Instrumentation and Test Evaluation (CITE 3) during which airborne measurements for carbonyl sulfide (COS), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and carbon disulfide (CS2) were intercompared. Instrumentation included a gas chromatograph using flame photometric detection (COS, H2S, and CS2), a gas chromatograph using mass spectrometric detection (COS) and CS2), a gas chromatograph using fluorination and subsequent SF6 detection via electron capture (COS and CS2), and the Natusch technique (H2S). The measurements were made over the Atlantic Ocean east of North and South America during flights from NASA's Wallops Flight Center, Virginia, and Natal, Brazil, in August/September 1989. Most of the intercomparisons for H2S and CS2 were at mixing ratios less than 25 pptv and less than 10 pptv, respectively, with a maximum mixing ratio of about 100 pptv and 50 pptv, respectively. Carbonyl sulfide intercomparisons were at mixing ratios between 400 and 600 pptv. Measurements were intercompared from data bases constructed from time periods of simultaneous or overlapping measurements. Agreement among the COS techniques averaged about 5%, and individual measurements were generally within 10%. For H2S and at mixing ratio greater than 25 pptv, the instruments agreed on average to about 15%. At mixing ratios less than 25 pptv the agreement was about 5 pptv. For CS2 (mixing ratios less than 50 pptv), two techniques agreed on average to about 4 pptv, and the third exhibited a bias (relative to the other two) that varied in the range of 3-7 pptv. CS2 mixing ratios over the ocean east of Natal as measured by the gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer technique were only a few pptv and were below the detection limits of the other two techniques. The CITE 3 data are used to estimate the current uncertainty associated with aircraft measurements of COS, H2S, and CS2 in the remote troposphere.

Gregory, Gerald L.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Experimentally-Derived Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function Data in Support of the Orbital Debris Program Office

The NASA Orbital Debris Program Office (ODPO) has used various optical assets to acquire photometric data of Earth-orbiting objects to define the orbital debris environment. To better characterize and model optical data acquired from ground-based telescopes, the Optical Measurements Center (OMC) at NASA Johnson Space Center emulates illumination conditions seen in space by using equipment and techniques that parallel telescopic observations and source-target-sensor orientations. One of the OMC goals is to improve the size calculation used for optical data by developing an optical-based Size Estimation Model. The current size estimation requires applying a Lambertian phase function, a set albedo value, and range to the observed magnitude. The first step to improving the sampled brightness of laboratory targets is to remove aspect-angle dependencies. Then, the volume of possible object viewing angles is sampled at 21 combinations of azimuth and zenith angles for each solar phase angle. Finally, the acquired images are input into an image processing program that generates approximations for the object’s Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) and phase function. The BRDF is a radiometric concept that identifies an object’s material composition by matching a BRDF approximated with photometric data collected by ground-based telescopes with a BRDF generated experimentally from a known object in the laboratory. This paper discusses the validation of experimental BRDF and phase function approximations produced in the OMC and how the findings will be incorporated into ODPO models. A Lambertian sphere is imaged and the subsequent experimental functions are scrutinized to confirm that they correspond to an object that has an isotropic luminance. With the image processing algorithm validated, test objects with varying optical properties are then imaged to confirm that the produced photometric functions are both unique and repeatable. Once the validation is complete, the OMC will be used to evaluate a subset of fragments from a hypervelocity impact test of a mock-up satellite and assess the appropriate phase function and size estimates using BRDF measurements for a large volume of targets composed of various shapes, sizes, and materials.

Orbital Debris Program Office (ODPO)↗
NASA NTRS2019

Experimentally-Derived Phase Function Approximations in Support of the Orbital Debris Program Office

The NASA Orbital Debris Program Office (ODPO) has used various optical assets to acquire photometric data of Earth-orbiting objects to define the orbital debris environment. To better characterize and model optical data acquired from ground-based telescopes, the Optical Measurements Center (OMC) at NASA Johnson Space Center emulates illumination conditions seen in space by using equipment and techniques that parallel telescopic observations and source-target-sensor orientations. One of the OMC goals is to improve the size calculation used for optical data by developing an optical-based Size Estimation Model. The current size estimation requires applying a Lambertian phase function, a set albedo value, and range to the observed magnitude. The first step to improving the sampled brightness of laboratory targets is to remove aspect-angle dependencies. Then, the volume of possible object viewing angles is sampled at 21 combinations of azimuth and elevation angles for each solar phase angle. Finally, the acquired images are input into an image processing program that generates approximations for the object’s Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) and phase function. The BRDF is a radiometric concept that identifies an object’s material composition by matching a BRDF approximated with photometric data collected by ground-based telescopes with a BRDF generated experimentally from a known object in the laboratory. This paper presents the initial BRDF and phase function approximations for various fragments/targets acquired in the OMC and how the findings will be incorporated into ODPO models. A Lambertian sphere is used as a baseline for initial size estimation calculations and phase function comparisons. Spacecraft materials and fragments from hypervelocity laboratory impact tests are also presented to compare against the current assumed Lambertian phase function used for size estimates. This paper presents the preliminary phase function analysis and plan forward to utilize a laboratory-based phase function to improve the current optical size estimates using BRDF measurements for a large volume of targets composed of various shapes, sizes, and materials.

Hostetler, J.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Hubble Space Telescope photometry of the central regions of Virgo cluster elliptical galaxies. 3: Brightness profiles

We have used the Planetary Camera on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to study the morphology and surface brightness parameters of a luminosity-limited sample of fourteen elliptical galaxies in the Virgo cluster. The total apparent blue magnitudes of the galaxies range between 9.4 and 13.4. In this paper, the core brightness profiles are presented, while the overall morphology and the isophotal shapes are discussed in two companion papers (Jaffe et al. (1994); van den Bosch et al. (1994)). We show that, in spite of the spherical aberration affecting the HST primary mirror, deconvolution techniques allow recovery of the brightness profile up to 0.2 arcsec from the center of the galaxies. We find that none of the galaxies has an isothermal core. On the basis of their morphological and photometrical properties, the galaxies can be divided in two physically distinct groups, referred to as Type I and Type II. All of the Type I galaxies are classified as E1 to E3 in the Revised Shapley Ames Catalog (Sandage & Tammann 1981), while Type II galaxies are classified as E5 to E7. The characteristics of Type II galaxies are explained by the presence of disks component on both the 1 arcsec and the 10 arcsec scales, while Type I galaxies correspond to the classical disk-free ellipticals.

Ferrarese, Laura↗
NASA NTRS2014

NASA's Optical Measurement Program 2014

The Optical Measurements Group (OMG) within the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office (ODPO) addresses U.S. National Space Policy goals by monitoring and characterizing debris. Since 2001, the OMG has used the Michigan Orbital Debris Survey Telescope (MODEST) at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) in Chile for general orbital debris surveys. The 0.6-m Schmidt MODEST provides calibrated astronomical data of GEO targets, both catalogued and uncatalogued debris, with excellent image quality. The data are utilized by the ODPO modeling group and are included in the Orbital Debris Engineering Model (ORDEM) v. 3.0. MODEST and the CTIO/SMARTS (Small and Moderate Aperture Research Telescope System) 0.9 m are both employed to acquire filter photometry data as well as synchronously observe targets in selected optical filters. Obtaining data synchronously yields data for material composition studies as well as longer orbital arc data on the same target without time delay or bias from a rotating, tumbling, or spinning target. Observations of GEO orbital debris using the twin 6.5-m Magellan telescopes at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile for deep imaging (Baade) and spectroscopic data (Clay) began in 2011. Through the data acquired on Baade, debris has been detected that reaches approx. 3 magnitudes fainter than detections with MODEST, while the spectral data from Clay provide better resolved information used in material characterization analyses. To better characterize and model optical data, the Optical Measurements Center (OMC) at NASA/JSC has been in operation since 2005, resulting in a database of comparison laboratory data. The OMC is designed to emulate illumination conditions in space using equipment and techniques that parallel telescopic observations and sourcetarget- sensor orientations. Lastly, the OMG is building the Meter Class Autonomous Telescope (MCAT) at Ascension Island. The 1.3-m telescope is designed to observe GEO and LEO targets, using a modified Ritchey-Chrétien configuration on a double horseshoe equatorial mount to allow tracking objects at LEO rates through the dome's keyhole at zenith. Through the data collection techniques employed at these unique facilities, NASA's ODPO has developed a multifaceted approach to characterize the orbital debris risk to satellites in various altitudes and provide insight leading toward material characterization of debris via photometric and spectroscopic measurements. Ultimately, the data are used in conjunction with in-situ and radar measurements to provide accurate data for models of our space environment and for facilitating spacecraft risk assessment.

Cowardin, H.↗
DOE OSTI2021

Bayesian Cross-matching of High Proper-motion Stars in Gaia DR2 and Photometric Metallicities for ∼1.7 million K and M Dwarfs

We present a Bayesian method to cross-match 5,827,988 high proper-motion Gaia sources (μ > 40 mas yr{sup −1}) to various photometric surveys: Two Micron All Sky Survey, AllWISE data release from the Wide-field Infrared Explorer (WISE) mission, Galaxy Evolution Explorer, Radial Velocity Experiment, Sloan Digital Sky Survey, and Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS). To efficiently associate these objects across catalogs, we develop a technique that compares the multidimensional distribution of all sources in the vicinity of each Gaia star to a reference distribution of random field stars obtained by extracting all sources in a region on the sky displaced 2′. This offset preserves the local field stellar density and magnitude distribution, allowing us to characterize the frequency of chance alignments. The resulting catalog with Bayesian probabilities >95% has a marginally higher match rate than current internal Gaia data release 2 (DR2) matches for most catalogs. However, a significant improvement is found with Pan-STARRS, where ∼99.8% of the sample within the Pan-STARRS footprint is recovered, as compared to a low ∼20.8% in Gaia DR2. Using these results, we train a Gaussian process regressor to calibrate two photometric metallicity relationships. For dwarfs of 3500 < T{sub eff} < 5280 K, we use metallicity values of 4378 stars from the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment and Hejazi et al. to calibrate the relationship, producing results with a 1σ precision of 0.12 dex and few systematic errors. We then indirectly infer the metallicity of 4018 stars with 2850 < T{sub eff} < 3500 K, which are wide companions of primaries whose metallicities are estimated with our first regressor, to produce a relationship with a 1σ precision of 0.21 dex and significant systematic errors. Additional work is needed to better remove unresolved binaries from this second sample to reduce these systematic errors.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

Prospects for future studies using deep imaging: analysis of individual Galactic cirrus filaments

The presence of Galactic cirrus is an obstacle for studying both faint objects in our Galaxy and low surface brightness extragalactic structures. With the aim of studying individual cirrus filaments in Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Stripe 82 data, we develop techniques based on machine learning and neural networks that allow one to isolate filaments from foreground and background sources in the entirety of Stripe 82 with a precision similar to that of the human expert. Our photometric study of individual filaments indicates that only those brighter than 26 mag arcsec −2 in the SDSS r band are likely to be identified in SDSS Stripe 82 data by their distinctive colours in the optical bands. We also show a significant impact of data processing (e.g. flat-fielding, masking of bright stars, and sky subtraction) on colour estimation. Analysing the distribution of filaments’ colours with the help of mock simulations, we conclude that most filaments have colours in the following ranges: 0.55 ≤g − r ≤ 0.73 and 0.01 ≤ r − i ≤ 0.33. Our work provides a useful framework for an analysis of all types of low surface brightness features (cirri, tidal tails, stellar streams, etc.) in existing and future deep optical surveys. For practical purposes, we provide the catalogue of dust filaments.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Bayesian Component Separation for DESI LAE Automated Spectroscopic Redshifts and Photometric Targeting

Lyα emitters (LAEs) are valuable high-redshift cosmological probes traditionally identified using specialized narrowband photometric surveys. In ground-based spectroscopy, it can be difficult to distinguish the sharp LAE peak from residual sky emission lines using automated methods, leading to misclassified redshifts. We present a Bayesian spectral component separation technique to automatically determine spectroscopic redshifts for LAEs while marginalizing over sky residuals. We use visually inspected spectra of LAEs obtained using the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) to create a data-driven prior and can determine redshift by jointly inferring sky residual, LAE, and residual components for each individual spectrum. We demonstrate this method on 881 spectroscopically observed z = 2–4 DESI LAE candidate spectra and determine their redshifts with >90% accuracy when validated against visually inspected redshifts. Using the Δχ$^{2}$ value from our pipeline as a proxy for detection confidence, we then explore potential survey design choices and implications for targeting LAEs with medium-band photometry. This method allows for scalability and accuracy in determining redshifts from DESI spectra, and the results provide recommendations for LAE targeting in anticipation of future high-redshift spectroscopic surveys.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
NASA NTRS1988

Radial velocity studies and absolute parameters of contact binaries. I - AB Andromedae

New radial velocity curves have been obtained for the contact binary AB And, using the cross-correlation technique. A mass ratio of 0.479 is determined, which is revised to 0.491 when the velocities are corrected for proximity effects using a light curve model. These values differ by less than ten percent from the photometric mass ratio. An analysis of the symmetric B and V light curves reported by Rigterink in 1973 using the spectroscopic mass ratio yields a consistent set of light and velocity curve elements. These also produce a reasonably good fit to the infrared J and K light curves reported by Jameson and Akinci in 1979. Absolute elements are determined, and these indicate that both components have a main-sequence internal structure. These absolute parameters, together with the Galactic kinematics, suggest an age for the system similar to or greater than that of the Sun.

Hrivnak, Bruce J.↗
NASA NTRS1992

A calculation of confusion noise due to infrared cirrus

General expressions are developed for the statistical errors to be expected in photometric measurements due to confusion in a background of fluctuating surface brightness. Backgrounds actually observed in the far IR by the IRAS satellite are used to calculate tables of these error expressions for two simple measurement techniques. The confusion-noise-limited sensitivities for NASA's planned Space IR Telescope Facility and the ESA's IR Space Observatory are estimated at a wavelength of 100 microns from these tables.

Gautier, T. N., III↗
NASA NTRS1980

Absolute line strengths in nu4, /C-12/H4 - A dual-beam diode laser spectrometer with sweep integration

A tunable diode laser spectrometer with several unique features has been developed for use in the middle IR. The all-reflective optical system has a dual-beam configuration before the dispersive mode selector to eliminate transit-angle errors at the calibration etalon. By maintaining separated beams through the mode selector, beam combiner losses are avoided. Averaging successive sweeps of the current-modulated laser permits stable reproducible spectral integrations, eliminating etalon thermal errors and producing high photometric sensitivity. Line strengths have been measured using this instrument for eleven transitions in nu4 of (C-12)H4. These include R0 and R1 and nine P-branch transitions in the 1202-1263-per cm range. Techniques for measuring strengths with a diode laser are discussed.

Jennings, D. E.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Classical novae and recurrent novae: General properties

We describe the observable characteristics of classical novae and recurrent novae obtained by different techniques (photometry, spectroscopy, and imaging) in all the available spectral ranges. We consider the three stages in the life of a nova: quiescence (pre- and post-outburst), outburst, final decline and nebular phase. We describe the photometric properties during the quiescent phase. We describe the photometric properties during outburst, the classification according the rate of decline (magnitudes per day), which permits us to define very fast, fast, intermediate, slow, and very slow novae and the correlation between luminosity and speed class. We report the scanty data on the spectra of the few known prenovae and those on the spectra of old novae and those of dwarf novae and nova-like, which, however, are almost undistinguishable. We describe the typical spectra appearing from the beginning of the outburst, just before maximum, up to the nebular phase and the correlation between spectral type at maximum, expansional velocity, and speed class of the nova. We report the existing infrared observations, which permit us to explain some of the characteristics of the outburst light curve, and give evidence of the formation of a dust shell in slow and intermediate novae (with the important exception of the very slow nova HR Del 1967) and its absence or quasi-absence in fast novae. The ultraviolet and X-ray observations are described. The X ray observations of novae, mainly from the two satellites EINSTEIN and EXOSAT, are reported. Observations of the final decline and of the envelopes appearing several months after outburst are also reported.

Hack, Margherita↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Lick Observatory Supernova Search follow-up program: photometry data release of 70 SESNe

We present BVRI and unfiltered (Clear) light curves of 70 stripped-envelope supernovae (SESNe), observed between 2003 and 2020, from the Lick Observatory Supernova Search follow-up program. Our SESN sample consists of 19 spectroscopically normal SNe Ib, 2 peculiar SNe Ib, six SNe Ibn, 14 normal SNe Ic, 1 peculiar SN Ic, 10 SNe Ic-BL, 15 SNe IIb, 1 ambiguous SN IIb/Ib/c, and 2 superluminous SNe. Our follow-up photometry has (on a per-SN basis) a mean coverage of 81 photometric points (median of 58 points) and a mean cadence of 3.6 d (median of 1.2 d). From our full sample, a subset of 38 SNe have pre-maximum coverage in at least one passband, allowing for the peak brightness of each SN in this subset to be quantitatively determined. We describe our data collection and processing techniques, with emphasis toward our automated photometry pipeline, from which we derive publicly available data products to enable and encourage further study by the community. Using these data products, we derive host-galaxy extinction values through the empirical colour evolution relationship and, for the first time, produce accurate rise-time measurements for a large sample of SESNe in both optical and infrared passbands. By modelling multiband light curves, we find that SNe Ic tend to have lower ejecta masses and lower ejecta velocities than SNe Ib and IIb, but higher 56Ni masses.

Lick Observatory↗
DOE OSTI2021

Photometric sensing of heavy metal ions using a naphthoquinodimethyl- bis -thioamide dye: Selectivity & photophysics of the metal organic complexes

As Mother Nature is experiencing catastrophic environmental pollutions from both natural sources and anthropogenic activities, many scientists have been working around the clock to develop environmentally benign and cost-effective, yet sensitive, detection techniques for pollutants, especially heavy metal species (e.g. lead, cadmium, mercury, among others) that are deleterious to human health. Herein, we report a novel sulfur-containing small organic dye/sensor naphthoquinodimethyl-bis-thioamide (QDM), which was found to be particularly selective toward mercury ion (Hg 2+ ). Using a combination of UV-vis absorption, photoluminescence, and time-resolved pump-probe techniques, we established that QDM and Hg 2+ can form stable complex(es) due to the strong affinity of sulfur toward mercury. In this investigation, while a higher ratio of QDM:Hg 2+ was necessary to fully quench the fluorescence emission of QDM, only 1 equiv of the Hg 2+ ion was necessary to observe the sensing effect on the excited state photo-behavior(s) of QDM. Furthermore, the present results highlight a synergy between molecular sensors' selectivity/sensitivity and sensor-analytes dynamics.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗