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NASA NTRS2018

PACE Technical Report Series, Volume 4: Cloud Retrievals in the PACE Mission: PACE Science Team Consensus Document

Earth is a complex dynamical system exhibiting continuous change in its atmosphere, ocean,and surface elements. Nearly all (99.97%) of the energy driving these systems is linked to the Sun. Measurements of reflected sunlight contain a unique signature of wavelength-specific scattering and absorption interactions occurring between incoming solar energy and atmospheric (molecules, aerosols,clouds) and surface features Clouds can affect significantly both shortwave and long wave radiation, depending on altitude/vertical structure, thermodynamic phase, and optical properties. Low, warm, and optically thick clouds predominantly have a cooling effect, while high, cold, optically thin clouds can cause warming by absorbing warmer radiation emitted from the surface and lower atmosphere.When the net difference between outgoing and incoming solar radiation is matched by the net infrared radiation emitted to space, the Earth's climate is in radiative balance. While radiative forcing components (GHGs, aerosols - direct and indirect) contribute to a net radiative imbalance, climate sensitivity is ultimately determined by the contribution of various system feed backs. The role of cloud feedback in a warming climate is currently the largest inter-model uncertainty in climate sensitivity and therefore in climate prediction [Bony and Dufresne 2005]. A comprehensive understanding of current cloud propertiesand dynamic/microphysical processes requires a global perspective from satellites.

Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE)↗
NASA NTRS1991

IRAS detection of very cold dust in the Lynds 134 cloud complex

IRAS maps at 60 and 100 microns of the complex of dark clouds containing L1345, L183, and L1780 are presented and discussed. Extended regions are apparent where the 60 micron emission is very low compared to the 100 micron emission. The 60-100 micron flux ratio has a constant value of 0.2 in the outer diffuse parts of the clouds but suddenly drops to less than 0.03 in the opaque cloud centers. A geometrical model is used to show that the drop occurs in a narrow transition layer that has not been resolved by IRAS. The observations provide direct evidence for dust temperatures colder than 15 K in dark clouds. A number of 60 micron-deficient regions are defined using the quantity Delta I(100) = I(60)/Theta, where Theta is the ratio I(60)/I(100) in the diffuse parts of the complex. Delta I(100) is highly proportional to extinction and (C-13)O column density. The relationships indicate that the dust temperature must be constant over a large fraction of the volume sampled by Delta I(100). An upper limit of 4.8 g/sq cm is obtained for the mass absorption coefficient of dust at 100 microns.

Laureijs, R. J.↗
NASA NTRS2000

The Interstellar Production of Biologically Important Organics

One of the primary tasks of the Astrochemistry Laboratory at Ames Research Center is to use laboratory simulations to study the chemical processes that occur in dense interstellar clouds. Since new stars are formed in these clouds, their materials may be responsible for the delivery of organics to new habitable planets and may play important roles in the origin of life. These clouds are extremely cold (less than 50 kelvin), and most of the volatiles in these clouds are condensed onto dust grains as thin ice mantles. These ices are exposed to cosmic rays and ultraviolet (UV) photons that break chemical bonds and result in the production of complex molecules when the ices are warmed (as they would be when incorporated into a star-forming region). Using cryovacuum systems and UV lamps, this study simulates the conditions of these clouds and studies the resulting chemistry. Some of the areas of progress made in 1999 are described below. It shows some of the types of molecules that may be formed in the interstellar medium. Laboratory simulations have already confirmed that many of these compounds are made under these conditions.

Sandford, Scott A.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Overview of ACTIVATE’s First Year of Flights Targeting Aerosol-Cloud-Meteorology Interactions

The Aerosol Cloud meTeorology Interactions oVer the western ATlantic Experiment (ACTIVATE) included 40 research flights in the winter and summer months of 2020 using a two-aircraft approach to simultaneously obtain in situ and remote sensing data of regions below, inside, and above boundary layer clouds. This presentation will summarize early findings from the first year of ACTIVATE flights with focus on aerosol and cloud droplet number concentration behavior, formation and evolution of clouds, and analysis of remote sensing retrievals of aerosol and cloud properties. There is a clear annual cycle in cloud droplet number concentration suggesting a marked annual cycle in aerosol-cloud interactions. Although aerosol particles are more abundant in spring and summer, the conditions needed to activate those particles into cloud droplets are weaker than in other colder months. Several flights targeted post-frontal clouds associated with cold air outbreaks pointing to enhanced levels of nucleated particles immediately above such clouds, and that ice formation hastens the transition from closed to open cloud structures in the sampled CAO events. Also observed in the marine boundary layer during CAOs is the frequent occurrence of non-spherical sea salt particles, which has significant implications for remote sensing retrievals.

Taylor Shingler↗
NASA NTRS2002

The Exobiological Role of Interstellar Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Ices

Tremendous strides have been made in our understanding of interstellar material over the past twenty years thanks to significant, parallel developments in observational astronomy and laboratory astrophysics. Before this time, the composition of interstellar dust was largely guessed-at, the presence of ices in interstellar clouds ignored, and the notion that large, gas phase, carbon rich molecules might be abundant and widespread throughout the interstellar medium (ISM) considered impossible. Today, the composition of dust in the ISM is reasonably well constrained to micron-sized cold refractory materials comprised of amorphous and crystalline silicates mixed with an amorphous carbonaceous material containing aromatic structural units and short, branched aliphatic chains. Shrouded within the protective confines of cold, opaque molecular clouds--the birthplace of stars and planets--these cold dust particles secrete mantles of mixed molecular ices whose compositions are also well constrained. Finally, amidst the molecular inventory of these ice mantles are likely to be found polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), shockingly large molecules by the standards of interstellar chemistry, the telltale infrared spectral signature of which is now recognized throughout the Universe. In the first part of this talk, we will review the spectroscopic evidence that forms the basis for the currently accepted abundance and ubiquity of PANs in the ISM. We will then look at a few specific examples which illustrate how experimental and theoretical data can be applied to interpret the interstellar spectra and track how the PAN population evolves as it passes from its formation site in the circumstellar outflows of dying stars, through the various phases of the ISM, and into forn~iing planetary systems. Nevertheless, despite the fact that PANs likely represent the single largest molecular reservoir of organic carbon in evolving planetary systems, they are not what would be considered "biogenic" molecules. Although interesting from a chemical and astrophysical standpoint, in the absence of a mechanism by which this population can be dislodged from the precipitous thermodynamic well afforded by their extensive aromatic networks, they are of little Astrobiological significance. Consequently, for the remainder of the talk, we will consider the photochemical evolution of PANS under conditions similar to those found in the ISM and in proto-planetary systems with an eye toward means by which this rich repository of pre-biotic organic "ore" might be converted into materials of greater importance to Astrobiology.

Hudgins, Douglas M.↗
NASA NTRS1981

H I and dust in Kutner's cloud

A map in the 1.420 GHz line of H I, with an angular resolution of 9.1 arcmin, is made toward Kutner's Cloud and the region between Kutner's Cloud and Heiles' Cloud. It is assumed that the cold H I in the clouds is located only in front of, and absorbs the H I background; the column density of cold H I, N(H I), is obtained from this absorption. The visual extinction for this region is determined from star counts on red and blue POSS prints. It is noted that most of the gas in the cloud is in the form of H2. The column density of H2 is obtained from the visual extinction and the extinction-to-gas ratio given by Bohlin et al. (1978).

Batrla, W.↗
NASA NTRS1993

Precombination Cloud Collapse and Baryonic Dark Matter

A simple spherical model of dense baryon clouds in the hot big bang 'strongly nonlinear primordial isocurvature baryon fluctuations' is reviewed and used to describe the dependence of cloud behavior on the model parameters, baryon mass, and initial over-density. Gravitational collapse of clouds before and during recombination is considered including radiation diffusion and trapping, remnant type and mass, and effects on linear large-scale fluctuation modes. Sufficiently dense clouds collapse early into black holes with a minimum mass of approx. 1 solar mass, which behave dynamically like collisionless cold dark matter. Clouds below a critical over-density, however, delay collapse until recombination, remaining until then dynamically coupled to the radiation like ordinary diffuse baryons, and possibly producing remnants of other kinds and lower mass. The mean density in either type of baryonic remnant is unconstrained by observed element abundances. However, mixed or unmixed spatial variations in abundance may survive in the diffuse baryon and produce observable departures from standard predictions.

Hogan, Craig J.↗
NASA NTRS1996

A technique for determining cloud free vs cloud contaminated pixels in satellite imagery

Since the first earth orbiting satellite sent pictures of the earth back to them, atmospheric scientists have been focused on the possibilities of using that information as both a forecasting tool and as a meteorological research tool. With the latest generation of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) now entering service, that view of the earth yields views at a frequency and resolution never before available. These satellites have imagers with a five band multi-spectral capability with high spatial resolution. In addition, the sounder has eighteen thermal infrared (IR) channels plus one low-resolution visible band. With a resolution as small as one kilometer, GOES provides scientists with a powerful eye on the atmosphere. Menzel and Purdom (1994) detail both the imager and sounder capability as well as other systems on the GOES satellites. Immediately apparent in the visible channel are the patterns of clouds swirling over both oceans and continents. These clouds range in size from huge planetary systems covering thousands of kilometers to puffy fair weather cumulus clouds on the order of half a kilometer in size. With the IR sensors temperature patterns are observed. High clouds appear very cold, while low stratus field show temperatures near that of the surface. The surface, in turn, generally appears warmer than the clouds. It would seem then a simple manner to determine cloud and surface temperature from the imagery, but such is not the case. While most of the atmospheric constituents are well mixed and homogeneous, water vapor is not. The water molecule, because of its unique structure and vibration modes, affects the transmittance of the atmosphere most notably in the infrared regions. There are regions of the IR spectrum where water vapor acts as a strong absorber, and at others it is nearly transparent. The transparent wavelengths are called windows, and one such window occurs at 11.2 microns. Adjacent to this window at 12.7 microns which is strongly absorbed by water vapor. These two wavelengths form what is known as a split window, the utility of which was used. Using the linearized form of the radiative transfer equation, they were able to use the split window to determine the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere. Jedlovec developed the physical split-window (PSW) technique which determines the integrated water content (IWC). The PSW method using Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) found on the older versions of the GOES satellites was used. Recently, Jedlovec and colleagues have been attempting to apply the PSW method using full disk IR imagery obtained by the new generation of GOES satellites. IWC is essential for improved analysis and prediction of convective storms which have been observed to develop in regions of both strong and rapidly evolving moisture gradients. It has also been used in the prediction of clouds and precipitation.

Wohlman, Richard A.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Hierarchical fragmentation model for the evolution of self-gravitating clouds

A hierarchical model for the fragmentation of cold, self-gravitating gas clouds is developed, and the model is applied to the collapse of matter accumulated at the boundaries of large-scale voids in the universe. In this model, the mass function for fragment sizes and the correlation function for fragment positions are naturally related. Using this relationship, the mass function for galaxies is derived from the observed galaxy-galaxy two-point correlation function. Assuming that galaxy masses and luminosities are proportional to one another, the derived luminosity function agrees with the empirical Schecter function at low luminosity. It is argued that the correlation function itself may be a natural outcome of large-scale gravitational instability at each stage of the hierarchy.

Newman, William I.↗
NASA NTRS1984

Distances of Local Clouds from Optical Line Observations

The interstellar D-line of Na 1 toward 49 stars were observed in order to determine the distance (125 plus or minus 25 pc) to a cold H 1 cloud. This sheet of gas may be part of the back side of the shell formed by the Loop I supernova.

Crutcher, R. M.↗
NASA NTRS2015

A-Train Based Observational Metrics for Model Evaluation in Extratropical Cyclones

Extratropical cyclones contribute most of the precipitation in the midlatitudes, i.e. up to 70 during winter in the northern hemisphere, and can generate flooding, extreme winds, blizzards and have large socio-economic impacts. As such, it is important that general circulation models (GCMs) accurately represent these systems so their evolution in a warming climate can be understood. However, there are still uncertainties on whether warming will increase their frequency of occurrence, their intensity and how much rain or snow they bring. Part of the issue is that models have trouble representing their strength, but models also have biases in the amount of clouds and precipitation they produce. This is caused by potential issues in various aspects of the models: convection, boundary layer, and cloud scheme to only mention a few. In order to pinpoint which aspects of the models need improvement for a better representation of extratropical cyclone precipitation and cloudiness, we will present A-train based observational metrics: cyclone-centered, warm and cold frontal composites of cloud amount and type, precipitation rate and frequency of occurrence. Using the same method to extract similar fields from the model, we will present an evaluation of the GISS-ModelE2 and the IPSL-LMDZ-5B models, based on their AR5 and more recent versions. The AR5 version of the GISS model underestimates cloud cover in extratropical cyclones while the IPSL AR5 version overestimates it. In addition, we will show how the observed CloudSat-CALIPSO cloud vertical distribution across cold fronts changes with moisture amount and cyclone strength, and test if the two models successfully represent these changes. We will also show how CloudSat-CALIPSO derived cloud type (i.e. convective vs. stratiform) evolves across warm fronts as cyclones age, and again how this is represented in the models. Our third process-based analysis concerns cumulus clouds in the post-cold frontal region and how their amount relates to the stability of the boundary layer. This test uses Aqua cloud and vertical atmospheric profiles and when applied to the model output can help assess the accuracy of the convection, boundary layer and cloud scheme.

Convection clouds↗
NASA NTRS1986

Senstitivity analysis of horizontal heat and vapor transfer coefficients for a cloud-topped marine boundary layer during cold-air outbreaks

The effects of external parameters on the surface heat and vapor fluxes into the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) during cold-air outbreaks are investigated using the numerical model of Stage and Businger (1981a). These fluxes are nondimensionalized using the horizontal heat (g1) and vapor (g2) transfer coefficient method first suggested by Chou and Atlas (1982) and further formulated by Stage (1983a). In order to simplify the problem, the boundary layer is assumed to be well mixed and horizontally homogeneous, and to have linear shoreline soundings of equivalent potential temperature and mixing ratio. Modifications of initial surface flux estimates, time step limitation, and termination conditions are made to the MABL model to obtain accurate computations. The dependence of g1 and g2 in the cloud topped boundary layer on the external parameters (wind speed, divergence, sea surface temperature, radiative sky temperature, cloud top radiation cooling, and initial shoreline soundings of temperature, and mixing ratio) is studied by a sensitivity analysis, which shows that the uncertainties of horizontal transfer coefficients caused by changes in the parameters are reasonably small.

Chang, Y. V.↗
NASA NTRS1990

ETO lidar studies of cirrostratus altocumulogenitus: Another role for supercooled liquid water in cirrus cloud formation

Cirrus clouds have traditionally been viewed as cold, wispy, or stratiform ice clouds, typically displaying optical phenomena such as haloes. A composition entirely of hexagonal ice crystals, of one habit or another could only have a transitory existence in cirrus, since the concentrations of ice nuclei (IN) measured by various techniques (at the surface or in the lower troposphere) indicate an enormous number of IN that should be active at cirrus cloud temperatures. In light of recent instrumental aircraft and polarization lidar studies of cirrus clouds, it is clear that highly supercooled cloud droplets can sometimes be a component of cirrus clouds. It remains to be determined if supercooled liquid water (SLW) is present abundantly enough in cirrus to play a significant role in earth's radiance balance, or is merely a curious, infrequent occurrence. To help evaluate this issue, the UH polarization lidar FIRE Extended Time Observation (ETO) of cirrus clouds are being utilized to compile, among other parameters, a climatological record of SLW clouds associated with and within cirrus.

Sassen, Kenneth↗
NASA NTRS1984

A new interstellar molecule - Tricarbon monoxide

The C3O molecule, whose pure rotational spectrum has only recently been studied in the laboratory, has been detected in the cold, dark interstellar Taurus Molecular Cloud 1. Since C3O is the first interstelar carbon chain molecule to contain oxygen, its existence places an important new constraint on chemical schemes for cold interstellar clouds. The abundance of C3O can be understood in terms of purely gas-phase ion-molecule chemistry.

Matthews, H. E.↗
NASA NTRS2008

The Impact of Aerosols on Cloud and Precipitation Processes: Cloud-Resolving Model Simulations

Aerosols and especially their effect on clouds are one of the key components of the climate system and the hydrological cycle [Ramanathan et al., 2001]. Yet, the aerosol effect on clouds remains largely unknown and the processes involved not well understood. A recent report published by the National Academy of Science states "The greatest uncertainty about the aerosol climate forcing - indeed, the largest of all the uncertainties about global climate forcing - is probably the indirect effect of aerosols on clouds [NRC, 2001]." The aerosol effect on clouds is often categorized into the traditional "first indirect (i.e., Twomey)" effect on the cloud droplet sizes for a constant liquid water path [Twomey, 1977] and the "semi-direct" effect on cloud coverage [e.g., Ackerman et al ., 2001]." Enhanced aerosol concentrations can also suppress warm rain processes by producing a narrow droplet spectrum that inhibits collision and coalescence processes [e.g., Squires and Twomey, 1961; Warner and Twomey, 1967; Warner, 1968; Rosenfeld, 19991. The aerosol effect on precipitation processes, also known as the second type of aerosol indirect effect [Albrecht, 1989], is even more complex, especially for mixed-phase convective clouds. Table 1 summarizes the key observational studies identifying the microphysical properties, cloud characteristics, thermodynamics and dynamics associated with cloud systems from high-aerosol continental environments. For example, atmospheric aerosol concentrations can influence cloud droplet size distributions, warm-rain process, cold-rain process, cloud-top height, the depth of the mixed phase region, and occurrence of lightning. In addition, high aerosol concentrations in urban environments could affect precipitation variability by providing an enhanced source of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Hypotheses have been developed to explain the effect of urban regions on convection and precipitation [van den Heever and Cotton, 2007 and Shepherd, 2005]. Please see Tao et al. (2007) for more detailed description on aerosol impact on precipitation. Recently, a detailed spectral-bin microphysical scheme was implemented into the Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (GCE) model. Atmospheric aerosols are also described using number density size-distribution functions. A spectral-bin microphysical model is very expensive from a computational point of view and has only been implemented into the 2D version of the GCE at the present time. The model is tested by studying the evolution of deep tropical clouds in the west Pacific warm pool region and summertime convection over a mid-latitude continent with different concentrations of CCN: a low "clean" concentration and a high "dirty" concentration. The impact of atmospheric aerosol concentration on cloud and precipitation will be investigated.

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗
NASA NTRS1998

The Role of Grain Surface Reactions in the Chemistry of Star Forming Regions

The importance of reactions at the surfaces of dust grains has long been recognized to be one of the two main chemical processes that form molecules in cold, dark interstellar clouds where simple, saturated (fully-hydrogenated) molecules such as H2 water, methanol, H2CO, H2S, ammonia and CH4 are present in quantities far too high to be consistent with their extremely low gas phase formation rates. In cold dark regions of interstellar space, dust grains provide a substrate onto which gas-phase species can accrete and react. Grains provide a "third body" or a sink for the energy released in the exothermic reactions that form chemical bonds. In essence, the surfaces of dust grains open up alternative reaction pathways to form observed molecules whose abundances cannot be explained with gas-phase chemistry alone. This concept is taken one step further in this work: instead of merely acting as a substrate onto which radicals and molecules may physically adsorb, some grains may actively participate in the reaction itself, forming chemical bonds with the accreting species. Until recently, surface chemical reactions had not been thought to be important in warm circumstellar media because adspecies rapidly desorb from grains at very low temperatures; thus, the residence times of molecules and radicals on the surface of grains at all but the lowest temperatures are far too short to allow these reactions to occur. However, if the adspecies could adsorb more strongly, via a true chemical bond with surfaces of some dust grains, then grain surface reactions will play an important role in warm circumstellar regions as well. In this work, the surface-catalyzed reaction CO + 3 H2 yields CH4 + H2O is studied in the context that it may be very effective at converting the inorganic molecule CO into the simplest organic compound, methane. H2 and CO are the most abundant molecules in space, and the reaction converting them to methane, while kinetically inhibited in the gas phase under most astrophysical conditions, is catalyzed by iron, an abundant constituent of interstellar dust. At temperatures between 600 and 1000 K, which occur in the outflows from red giants and near luminous young stars, this reaction readily proceeds in the presence of an iron catalyst. Iron is one of the more abundant elements composing interstellar dust. Its abundance relative to hydrogen is almost that of silicon, and both of these heavy elements are primarily locked up in dust at all but the hottest regions of interstellar space.

Kress, M. E.↗
NASA NTRS1991

The chemistry of dense interstellar clouds

The basic theme of this program is the study of molecular complexity and evolution in interstellar and circumstellar clouds incorporating the biogenic elements. Recent results include the identification of a new astronomical carbon-chain molecule, C4Si. This species was detected in the envelope expelled from the evolved star IRC+10216 in observations at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory in Japan. C4Si is the carrier of six unidentified lines which had previously been observed. This detection reveals the existence of a new series of carbon-chain molecules, C sub n Si (n equals 1, 2, 4). Such molecules may well be formed from the reaction of Si(+) with acetylene and acetylene derivatives. Other recent research has concentrated on the chemical composition of the cold, dark interstellar clouds, the nearest dense molecular clouds to the solar system. Such regions have very low kinetic temperatures, on the order of 10 K, and are known to be formation sites for solar-type stars. We have recently identified for the first time in such regions the species of H2S, NO, HCOOH (formic acid). The H2S abundance appears to exceed that predicted by gas-phase models of ion-molecule chemistry, perhaps suggesting the importance of synthesis on grain surfaces. Additional observations in dark clouds have studied the ratio of ortho- to para-thioformaldehyde. Since this ratio is expected to be unaffected by both radiative and ordinary collisional processes in the cloud, it may well reflect the formation conditions for this molecule. The ratio is observed to depart from that expected under conditions of chemical equilibrium at formation, perhaps reflecting efficient interchange between cold dust grains in the gas phase.

Irvine, W. M.↗
NASA NTRS2013

Chemical Heterogeneity of a Large Cluster IDP: Clues to its Formation History Using X-ray Fluorescence Mapping and XANES Spectroscopy

Chondritic porous IDPs may be among the most primitive objects found in our solar system [1]. They consist of many micron to submicron minerals, glasses and carbonaceous matter [2,3,4,5,6,7] with > 10(exp 4) grains in a 10 micron cluster [8]. Speculation on the environment where these fine grained, porous IDPs formed varies with possible sources being presolar dusty plasma clouds, protostellar condensation, solar asteroids or comets [4,6,9]. Also, fine grained dust forms in our solar system today [10,11]. Isotopic anomalies in some particles in IDPs suggest an interstellar source[4,7,12]. IDPs contain relic particles left from the dusty plasma that existed before the protostellar disk formed and other grains in the IDPs formed later after the cold dense nebula cloud collapsed to form our protostar and other grains formed more recently. Fe and CR XANES spectroscopy is used here to investigate the oxygen environment in a large (>50 10 micron or larger sub-units) IDP. Conclusions: Analyzing large (>50 10 micron or larger sub-units) CP IDPs gives one a view on the environments where these fine dust grains formed which is different from that found by only analyzing the small, 10 micron IDPs. As with cluster IDP L2008#5 [3], L2009R2 cluster #13 appears to be an aggregate of grains that sample a diversity of solar and perhaps presolar environments. Sub-micron, grain by grain measurement of trace element contents and elemental oxidation states determined by XANES spectroscopy offers the possibility of understanding the environments in which these grains formed when compared to standard spectra. By comparing thermodynamic modeling of condensates with analytical data an understanding of transport mechanisms operating in the early solar system may be attained.

Wirick, S.↗