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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 253 records · Page 14
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DOE OSTI2011

RADIATION PRESSURE FROM MASSIVE STAR CLUSTERS AS A LAUNCHING MECHANISM FOR SUPER-GALACTIC WINDS

Galactic outflows of cool ({approx}10{sup 4} K) gas are ubiquitous in local starburst galaxies and in most high-redshift galaxies. Hot gas from supernovae has long been suspected as the primary driver, but this mechanism suffers from its tendency to destroy the cool gas. We propose a modification of the supernova scenario that overcomes this difficulty. Star formation is observed to take place in clusters. We show that, for L* galaxies, the radiation pressure from clusters with M{sub cl} {approx}> 10{sup 6} M{sub sun} is able to expel the surrounding gas at velocities in excess of the circular velocity v{sub c} of the disk galaxy. This cool gas travels above the galactic disk before supernovae erupt in the driving cluster. Once above the disk, the cool outflowing gas is exposed to radiation and hot gas outflows from the galactic disk, which in combination drive it to distances of {approx}50 kpc. Because the radiatively driven clouds grow in size as they travel, and because the hot gas is more dilute at large distance, the clouds are less subject to destruction. Therefore, unlike wind-driven clouds, radiatively driven clouds can give rise to the metal absorbers seen in quasar spectra. We identify these cluster-driven winds with large-scale galactic outflows. The maximum cluster mass in a galaxy is an increasing function of the galaxy's gas surface density, so only starburst galaxies are able to drive cold outflows. We find the critical star formation rate for launching large-scale cool outflows to be {Sigma}-dot{sub *}{sup crit} approx. 0.05 M{sub sun} yr{sup -1} kpc{sup -2}, in good agreement with observations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE PHOTOEVAPORATIVE WIND FROM THE DISK OF TW Hya

Photoevaporation driven by the central star is expected to be a ubiquitous and important mechanism for dispersing the circumstellar dust and gas from which planets form. Here, we present a detailed study of the circumstellar disk surrounding the nearby star TW Hya and provide observational constraints to its photoevaporative wind. Our new high-resolution (R {approx} 30,000) mid-infrared spectroscopy in the [Ne II] 12.81 {mu}m line confirms that this gas diagnostic traces the unbound wind component within 10 AU of the star. From the blueshift and asymmetry in the line profile, we estimate that most (>80%) of the [Ne II] emission arises from disk radii where the midplane is optically thick to the redshifted outflowing gas, meaning beyond the 1 or 4 AU dust rim inferred from other observations. We re-analyze high-resolution (R {approx} 48,000) archival optical spectra searching for additional transitions that may trace the photoevaporative flow. Unlike the [Ne II] line, optical forbidden lines from O I, S II, and Mg I are centered at stellar velocity and have symmetric profiles. The only way these lines can trace the photoevaporative flow is if they arise from a disk region physically distinct from that traced by the [Ne II] line, specifically from within the optically thin dust gap. However, the small ({approx}10 km s{sup -1}) FWHM of these lines suggests that most of the emitting gas traced at optical wavelengths is bound to the system rather than unbound. We discuss the implications of our results for a planet-induced gap versus a photoevaporation-induced gap.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

AN ENVELOPE DISRUPTED BY A QUADRUPOLAR OUTFLOW IN THE PRE-PLANETARY NEBULA IRAS 19475+3119

IRAS 19475+3119 is a quadrupolar pre-planetary nebula (PPN), with two bipolar lobes, one in the east-west (E-W) direction and one in the southeast-northwest (SE-NW) direction. We have observed it in CO J = 2-1 with the Submillimeter Array at {approx}1'' resolution. The E-W bipolar lobe is known to trace a bipolar outflow and it is detected at high velocity. The SE-NW bipolar lobe appears at low velocity, and could trace a bipolar outflow moving in the plane of the sky. Two compact clumps are seen at low velocity around the common waist of the two bipolar lobes, spatially coincident with the two emission peaks in the NIR, tracing dense envelope material. They are found to trace the two limb-brightened edges of a slowly expanding torus-like circumstellar envelope produced in the late asymptotic giant branch phase. This torus-like envelope originally could be either a torus or a spherical shell, and it appears as it is now because of the two pairs of cavities along the two bipolar lobes. Thus, the envelope appears to be disrupted by the two bipolar outflows in the PPN phase.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

ON THE NATURE OF THE PROTOTYPE LUMINOUS BLUE VARIABLE AG CARINAE. II. WITNESSING A MASSIVE STAR EVOLVING CLOSE TO THE EDDINGTON AND BISTABILITY LIMITS

We show that the significantly different effective temperatures (T{sub eff}) achieved by the luminous blue variable AG Carinae during the consecutive visual minima of 1985-1990 (T{sub eff} {approx_equal} 22,800 K) and 2000-2001 (T{sub eff} {approx_equal} 17,000 K) place the star on different sides of the bistability limit, which occurs in line-driven stellar winds around T{sub eff} {approx} 21,000 K. Decisive evidence is provided by huge changes in the optical depth of the Lyman continuum in the inner wind as T{sub eff} changes during the S Dor cycle. These changes cause different Fe ionization structures in the inner wind. The bistability mechanism is also related to the different wind parameters during visual minima: the wind terminal velocity was 2-3 times higher and the mass-loss rate roughly two times smaller in 1985-1990 than in 2000-2003. We obtain a projected rotational velocity of 220 {+-} 50 km s{sup -1} during 1985-1990 which, combined with the high luminosity (L{sub *} = 1.5 x 10{sup 6} L{sub sun}), puts AG Car extremely close to the Eddington limit modified by rotation ({Omega}{Gamma} limit): for an inclination angle of 90{sup 0}, {Gamma}{sub {Omega}} {approx}> 1.0 for M{sub sun} {approx}< 60. Based on evolutionary models and mass budget, we obtain an initial mass of {approx}100 M{sub sun} and a current mass of {approx}60-70 M{sub sun} for AG Car. Therefore, AG Car is close to, if not at, the {Omega}{Gamma} limit during visual minimum. Assuming M = 70 M{sub sun}, we find that {Gamma}{sub {Omega}} decreases from 0.93 to 0.72 as AG Car expands toward visual maximum, suggesting that the star is not above the Eddington limit during maximum phases.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

A MULTIWAVELENGTH STUDY OF CYGNUS X-1: THE FIRST MID-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPIC DETECTION OF COMPACT JETS

We report on a Spitzer/InfraRed Spectrograph (mid-infrared), RXTE/PCA+HEXTE (X-ray), and Ryle (radio) simultaneous multiwavelength study of the microquasar Cygnus X-1, which aimed at an investigation of the origin of its mid-infrared emission. Compact jets were present in two out of three observations, and we show that they strongly contribute to the mid-infrared continuum. During the first observation, we detect the spectral break-where the transition from the optically thick to the optically thin regime takes place-at about 2.9 x 10{sup 13} Hz. We then show that the jet's optically thin synchrotron emission accounts for Cygnus X-1's emission beyond 400 keV, although it cannot alone explain its 3-200 keV continuum. A compact jet was also present during the second observation, but we do not detect the break, since it has likely shifted to higher frequencies. In contrast, the compact jet was absent during the last observation, and we show that the 5-30 {mu}m mid-infrared continuum of Cygnus X-1 stems from the blue supergiant companion star HD 226868. Indeed, the emission can then be understood as the combination of the photospheric Rayleigh-Jeans tail and the bremsstrahlung from the expanding stellar wind. Moreover, the stellar wind is found to be clumpy, with a filling factor f{sub {infinity}} {approx} 0.09-0.10. Its bremsstrahlung emission is likely anti-correlated to the soft X-ray emission, suggesting an anti-correlation between the mass-loss and mass-accretion rates. Nevertheless, we do not detect any mid-infrared spectroscopic evidence of interaction between the jets and Cygnus X-1's environment and/or the companion star's stellar wind.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

A SYSTEMATIC SEARCH FOR COROTATING INTERACTION REGIONS IN APPARENTLY SINGLE GALACTIC WOLF-RAYET STARS. II. A GLOBAL VIEW OF THE WIND VARIABILITY

This study is the second part of a survey searching for large-scale spectroscopic variability in apparently single Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars. In a previous paper (Paper I), we described and characterized the spectroscopic variability level of 25 WR stars observable from the northern hemisphere and found 3 new candidates presenting large-scale wind variability, potentially originating from large-scale structures named corotating interaction regions (CIRs). In this second paper, we discuss an additional 39 stars observable from the southern hemisphere. For each star in our sample, we obtained 4-5 high-resolution spectra with a signal-to-noise ratio of {approx}100 and determined its variability level using the approach described in Paper I. In total, 10 new stars are found to show large-scale spectral variability of which 7 present CIR-type changes (WR 8, WR 44, WR55, WR 58, WR 61, WR 63, WR 100). Of the remaining stars, 20 were found to show small-amplitude changes and 9 were found to show no spectral variability as far as can be concluded from the data on hand. Also, we discuss the spectroscopic variability level of all single galactic WR stars that are brighter than v {approx} 12.5, and some WR stars with 12.5 < v {<=} 13.5, i.e., all the stars presented in our two papers and four more stars for which spectra have already been published in the literature. We find that 23/68 stars (33.8%) present large-scale variability, but only 12/54 stars ({approx}22.1%) are potentially of CIR type. Also, we find that 31/68 stars (45.6%) only show small-scale variability, most likely due to clumping in the wind. Finally, no spectral variability is detected based on the data on hand for 14/68 (20.6%) stars. Interestingly, the variability with the highest amplitude also has the widest mean velocity dispersion.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2011

SLOW RADIATION-DRIVEN WIND SOLUTIONS OF A-TYPE SUPERGIANTS

The theory of radiation-driven winds succeeded in describing terminal velocities and mass-loss rates of massive stars. However, for A-type supergiants the standard m-CAK solution predicts values of mass loss and terminal velocity higher than the observed values. Based on the existence of a slow wind solution in fast rotating massive stars, we explore numerically the parameter space of radiation-driven flows to search for new wind solutions in slowly rotating stars that could explain the origin of these discrepancies. We solve the one-dimensional hydrodynamical equation of rotating radiation-driven winds at different stellar latitudes and explore the influence of ionization changes throughout the wind in the velocity profile. We have found that for particular sets of stellar and line-force parameters, a new slow solution exists over the entire star when the rotational speed is slow or even zero. In the case of slow rotating A-type supergiant stars, the presence of this novel slow solution at all latitudes leads to mass losses and wind terminal velocities which are in agreement with the observed values. The theoretical wind-momentum-luminosity relationship derived with these slow solutions shows very good agreement with the empirical relationship. In addition, the ratio between the terminal and escape velocities, which provides a simple way to predict stellar wind energy and momentum input into the interstellar medium, is also properly traced.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE NON-THERMAL, TIME-VARIABLE RADIO EMISSION FROM Cyg OB2 no. 5: A WIND-COLLISION REGION

The radio emission from the well-studied massive stellar system Cyg OB2 no. 5 is known to fluctuate with a period of 6.7 years between a low-flux state, when the emission is entirely of free-free origin, and a high-flux state, when an additional non-thermal component (of hitherto unknown nature) appears. In this paper, we demonstrate that the radio flux of that non-thermal component is steady on timescales of hours and that its morphology is arc-like. This shows that the non-thermal emission results from the collision between the strong wind driven by the known contact binary in the system and that of an unseen companion on a somewhat eccentric orbit with a 6.7 year period and a 5-10 mas semimajor axis. Together with the previously reported wind-collision region located about 0.''8 to the northeast of the contact binary, so far Cyg OB2 no. 5 appears to be the only multiple system known to harbor two radio-imaged wind-collision regions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

POPULATION PARAMETERS OF INTERMEDIATE-AGE STAR CLUSTERS IN THE LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD. III. DYNAMICAL EVIDENCE FOR A RANGE OF AGES BEING RESPONSIBLE FOR EXTENDED MAIN-SEQUENCE TURNOFFS

We present a new analysis of 11 intermediate-age (1-2 Gyr) star clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud based on Hubble Space Telescope imaging data. Seven of the clusters feature main-sequence turnoff (MSTO) regions that are wider than can be accounted for by a simple stellar population, whereas their red giant branches (RGBs) indicate a single value of [Fe/H]. The star clusters cover a range in present-day mass from about 1 x 10{sup 4} M{sub sun} to 2 x 10{sup 5} M{sub sun}. We compare radial distributions of stars in the upper and lower parts of the MSTO region, and calculate cluster masses and escape velocities from the present time back to a cluster age of 10 Myr. Our main result is that for all clusters in our sample with estimated escape velocities v{sub esc} {approx}> 15 km s{sup -1} at an age of 10 Myr, the stars in the brightest half of the MSTO region are significantly more centrally concentrated than the stars in the faintest half and more massive RGB and asymptotic giant branch stars. This is not the case for clusters with v{sub esc} {approx}< 10 km s{sup -1} at an age of 10 Myr. We argue that the wide MSTO region of such clusters is caused mainly by a {approx}200-500 Myr range in the ages of cluster stars due to extended star formation within the cluster from material shed by first-generation stars featuring slow stellar winds. Dilution of this enriched material by accretion of ambient interstellar matter is deemed plausible if the spread of [Fe/H] in this ambient gas was very small when the second-generation stars were formed in the cluster.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

RADIATION-HYDRODYNAMIC MODELS OF THE EVOLVING CIRCUMSTELLAR MEDIUM AROUND MASSIVE STARS

We study the evolution of the interstellar and circumstellar media around massive stars (M {>=} 40 M{sub sun}) from the main sequence (MS) through to the Wolf-Rayet (WR) stage by means of radiation-hydrodynamic simulations. We use publicly available stellar evolution models to investigate the different possible structures that can form in the stellar wind bubbles around WR stars. We find significant differences between models with and without stellar rotation, and between models from different authors. More specifically, we find that the main ingredients in the formation of structures in the WR wind bubbles are the duration of the red supergiant (or luminous blue variable) phase, the amount of mass lost, and the wind velocity during this phase, in agreement with previous authors. Thermal conduction is also included in our models. We find that MS bubbles with thermal conduction are slightly smaller, due to extra cooling which reduces the pressure in the hot, shocked bubble, but that thermal conduction does not appear to significantly influence the formation of structures in post-MS bubbles. Finally, we study the predicted X-ray emission from the models and compare our results with observations of the WR bubbles S 308, NGC 6888, and RCW 58. We find that bubbles composed primarily of clumps have reduced X-ray luminosity and very soft spectra, while bubbles with shells correspond more closely to observations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

N II {lambda}{lambda}5668-5712: A NEW CLASS OF SPECTRAL FEATURES IN ETA CARINAE

We report on the N II {lambda}{lambda}5668-5712 emission and absorption lines in the spectrum of {eta} Carinae. Spectral lines of the stellar wind regions can be classified into four physically distinct categories: (1) low-excitation emission such as H I and Fe II, (2) higher-excitation He I features, (3) the N II lines discussed in this paper, and (4) He II emission. These categories have different combinations of radial velocity behavior, excitation processes, and dependences on the secondary star. The N II lines are the only known features that originate in 'normal' undisturbed zones of the primary wind but depend primarily on the location of the hot secondary star. N II probably excludes some proposed models, such as those where He I lines originate in the secondary star's wind or in an accretion disk.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

A RADIO PULSAR SEARCH OF THE {gamma}-RAY BINARIES LS I +61 303 AND LS 5039

LS I +61 303 and LS 5039 are exceptionally rare examples of high-mass X-ray binaries with MeV-TeV emission, making them two of only five known '{gamma}-ray binaries'. There has been disagreement within the literature over whether these systems are microquasars, with stellar winds accreting onto a compact object to produce high energy emission and relativistic jets, or whether their emission properties might be better explained by a relativistic pulsar wind colliding with the stellar wind. Here we present an attempt to detect radio pulsars in both systems with the Green Bank Telescope. The upper limits of flux density are between 4.1 and 14.5 {mu}Jy, and we discuss the null results of the search. Our spherically symmetric model of the wind of LS 5039 demonstrates that any pulsar emission will be strongly absorbed by the dense wind unless there is an evacuated region formed by a relativistic colliding wind shock. LS I +61 303 contains a rapidly rotating Be star whose wind is concentrated near the stellar equator. As long as the pulsar is not eclipsed by the circumstellar disk or viewed through the densest wind regions, detecting pulsed emission may be possible during part of the orbit.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

EVOLUTION OF SUPER STAR CLUSTER WINDS WITH STRONG COOLING

We study the evolution of super star cluster winds driven by stellar winds and supernova explosions. Time-dependent rates at which mass and energy are deposited into the cluster volume, as well as the time-dependent chemical composition of the re-inserted gas, are obtained from the population synthesis code Starburst99. These results are used as input for a semi-analytic code which determines the hydrodynamic properties of the cluster wind as a function of cluster age. Two types of winds are detected in the calculations. For the quasi-adiabatic solution, all of the inserted gas leaves the cluster in the form of a stationary wind. For the bimodal solution, some of the inserted gas becomes thermally unstable and forms dense warm clumps which accumulate inside the cluster. We calculate the evolution of the wind velocity and energy flux and integrate the amount of accumulated mass for clusters of different mass, radius, and initial metallicity. We also consider conditions with low heating efficiency of the re-inserted gas or mass loading of the hot thermalized plasma with the gas left over from star formation. We find that the bimodal regime and the related mass accumulation occur if at least one of the two conditions above is fulfilled.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

CANGAROO-III OBSERVATION OF TeV GAMMA RAYS FROM THE UNIDENTIFIED GAMMA-RAY SOURCE HESS J1614-518

We report the detection, with the CANGAROO-III imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescope array, of a very high energy gamma-ray signal from the unidentified gamma-ray source HESS J1614-518, which was discovered in the H.E.S.S. Galactic plane survey. Diffuse gamma-ray emission was detected above 760 GeV at the 8.9{sigma} level during an effective exposure of 54 hr from 2008 May to August. The spectrum can be represented by a power law: (8.2 {+-} 2.2{sub stat} {+-} 2.5{sub sys}) x 10{sup -12} x (E/1 TeV){sup -}{gamma} cm{sup -2} s{sup -1} TeV{sup -1} with a photon index {gamma} of 2.4 {+-} 0.3{sub stat} {+-} 0.2{sub sys}, which is compatible with that of the H.E.S.S. observations. By combining our result with multiwavelength data, we discuss the possible counterparts for HESS J1614-518 and consider radiation mechanisms based on hadronic and leptonic processes for a supernova remnant (SNR), stellar winds from massive stars, and a pulsar wind nebula (PWN). Although a leptonic origin from a PWN driven by an unknown pulsar remains possible, hadronic-origin emission from an unknown SNR is preferred.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

CRITICAL DIFFERENCES AND CLUES IN ETA CAR'S 2009 EVENT ,

We monitored Eta Carinae with the Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 and Gemini GMOS throughout the 2009 spectroscopic event, which was expected to differ from its predecessor in 2003. Here we report major observed differences between events and their implications. Some of these results were quite unexpected. (1) The UV brightness minimum was much deeper in 2009. This suggests that physical conditions in the early stages of an event depend on different parameters than the 'normal' inter-event wind. Extra mass ejection from the primary star is one possible cause. (2) The expected He II {lambda}4687 brightness maximum was followed several weeks later by another. We explain why this fact and the timing of the {lambda}4687 maxima strongly support a 'shock breakup' hypothesis for X-ray and {lambda}4687 behavior as proposed 5-10 years ago. (3) We observed a polar view of the star via light reflected by dust in the Homunculus nebula. Surprisingly, at that location, the variations of emission-line brightness and Doppler velocities closely resembled a direct view of the star, which should not have been true for any phenomena related to the orbit. This result casts very serious doubt on all the proposed velocity interpretations that depend on the secondary star's orbital motion. (4) Latitude-dependent variations of H I, He I, and Fe II features reveal aspects of wind behavior during the event. In addition, we discuss implications of the observations for several crucial unsolved problems.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DUSTY EXPLOSIONS FROM DUSTY PROGENITORS: THE PHYSICS OF SN 2008S AND THE 2008 NGC 300-OT

SN 2008S and the 2008 NGC 300-OT were explosive transients of stars self-obscured by very dense, dusty stellar winds. An explosive transient with an unobserved shock breakout luminosity of order 10{sup 10} L{sub sun} is required to render the transients little obscured and visible in the optical at their peaks. Such a large breakout luminosity then implies that the progenitor stars were cool, red supergiants, most probably {approx}9 M{sub sun} extreme asymptotic giant branch stars. As the shocks generated by the explosions propagate outward through the dense wind, they produce a shock luminosity in soft X-rays that powers the long-lived luminosity of the transients. Unlike typical cases of transients exploding into a surrounding circumstellar medium, the progenitor winds in these systems are optically thick to soft X-rays, easily absorb radio emission, and rapidly reform dust destroyed by the peak luminosity of the transients. As a result, X-rays are absorbed by the gas and the energy is ultimately radiated by the reformed dust. Three years post-peak, both systems are still significantly more luminous than their progenitor stars, but they are again fully shrouded by the reformed dust and only visible in the mid-IR. The high luminosity and heavy obscuration may make it difficult to determine the survival of the progenitor stars for {approx}10 years. However, our model indicates that SN 2008S, but not the NGC 300-OT, should now be a detectable X-ray source. SN 2008S has a higher estimated shock velocity and a lower density wind, so the X-rays begin to escape at a much earlier phase.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE INCIDENCE OF NON-SPHERICAL CIRCUMSTELLAR ENVELOPES IN ASYMPTOTIC GIANT BRANCH STARS

The relative occurrence of asymmetric structures in the circumstellar envelopes (CSEs) of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars in detached binary star systems is studied based on a population synthesis method. The effects of envelope shaping by the gravitational interaction of the companion on an outflowing stellar wind are incorporated using previously derived empirical fits to numerical simulations. It is shown that significant asymmetries in the CSE, characterized by a ratio of the density in the equatorial direction relative to the polar direction, can exceed 10 for AGB stars characterized by luminosities in the range of 1000-10, 000 L{sub sun} in systems with orbital separations of 3-30 AU and mass ratios of 0.25-1. The incidence of such systems relative to a present-day field population of AGB stars (single + binary) is estimated to be 1%-6%, depending upon input parameter choices. For more modest density contrasts exceeding a factor of two, the incidence increases to 4%-15%. With the advent of future high-resolution molecular line studies of CSEs with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, it is anticipated that the number of AGB stars exhibiting detectable asymmetries will significantly increase.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

HOT MOLECULAR CORES IN INFRARED DARK CLOUDS

We present high angular resolution continuum images and molecular line spectra obtained at 345 GHz with the Submillimeter Array (SMA) toward two massive cores that lie within Infrared Dark Clouds (IRDCs): G034.43+00.24 MM1 and G024.33+00.11 MM1. Both of these cores contain bright, unresolved (<2'') objects that have previously been imaged in the millimeter/submillimeter continuum with the Institut de RadioAstronomie Millimetrique (IRAM) Plateau de Bure Interferometer and SMA and show complex molecular line chemistry. The new, higher angular resolution SMA continuum images reveal that both cores contain massive (8, 26 M{sub Sun }), unresolved (0.''6; {approx}3000 AU) continuum emission features and emission from many complex molecular transitions, which confirm that these are hot molecular cores, an early stage in the formation of a high-mass star. Because these hot cores are located within IRDCs, they may well represent the very earliest phases in the formation of high-mass protostars and, hence, their detailed study may reveal the initial conditions within high-mass star-forming cores, before they are shredded apart by stellar winds and radiation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗