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At least 253 records · Page 14

All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2018

Dose Estimation in Recycling of Decontamination Soil Due to Fukushima NPS Accident as Coastal Levees - 18138

After the Fukushima Nuclear Power Station accident, large quantities of radiocesium-contaminated soil generated from decontamination activities have been stored in the Fukushima prefecture. To complete the final disposal of decontamination soil, the Ministry of the Environment of Japan presented policy to reduce the disposal volume by using low-level decontamination soil as recycled materials. The use will be limited to civil engineering structures in public projects, such as coastal levee and road embankment, and be managed by the public authority. However, there has been no example or safety assessment of recycling of decontamination soil. To contribute to guideline development for the recycling by the Ministry of the Environment, we conducted the safety assessment for recycling of decontamination soil as coastal levee. First, we evaluated additional doses to workers and the public in the case of construction and service of coastal levee based on Japanese construction standards. From the result, the radioactive cesium concentration level of recycled materials, with which all additional doses meet the radiation criterion of 1 mSv/y, was derived to be 6,800 Bq/kg. For general designs of coastal levee in Japan, additional doses to the public in the case of service were below 10 μSv/y with derived radioactivity level. Finally, the radiation safety for collapse of coastal levee caused by natural disasters was evaluated to be on the safe side. With derived radioactivity level, additional doses in the case of disaster were confirmed to be below 1 mSv/y. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2025

Conductive Liquid Metal Vitrimer Composites for Reconfigurable and Recyclable Flexible Electronics

Liquid metal (LM) elastomer composites exhibit excellent functionality for stretchable electronics and wearables, but limited recycling and reuse pathways constrain their sustainable use. Here, to address these challenges amid growing concerns over electronic waste, a conductive LM–vitrimer composite is presented that enables recyclable and reconfigurable electronics. This soft and stretchable composite features uniformly distributed LM inclusions that enhance thermal conductivity by 6.53× and enable the formation of conductive traces with electrical self-healing, while the vitrimer provides structural restoration. The dynamic covalent bonds of the vitrimer matrix are leveraged for both reprocessing the composite and chemically recovering 94% of the LM. This liquid-state filler slightly reduces the vitrimer's stiffness to 2.63 MPa (≈20% lower), while maintaining its high stretchability (>135% strain) and thermal stability. It is further examined how ultrasonicated LM inclusions interact with the vitrimer matrix and demonstrate the composite's self-healing and recyclability through two distinct approaches: 1) thermomechanical reprocessing, which restores fragmented composites under heat and compression for circuit reconfiguration; and 2) chemical recycling, which recovers the embedded LM for reuse in fabricating new composites and redesigned circuitry. With the integration of recyclability and diverse functional capabilities, LM–vitrimer composites emerge as a promising material platform for sustainable, flexible electronics.

Han, Youngshang [Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA ↗

DOE OSTI2019

An Effective Relithiation Process for Recycling Lithium‐Ion Battery Cathode Materials

Abstract Rapid adoption of lithium‐ion batteries for electronics and electric vehicles requires cost‐effective and efficient recycling of battery components especially the valuable cathode active materials. The direct recycling method transforms end‐of‐life (EOL) cathode materials into battery grade materials with minimal energy consumption and least environmental disruption. In direct recycling, the relithiation step to restore the lithium stoichiometry of the cathode materials is critical. In this work, a novel electrochemical relithiation approach in an aqueous electrolyte followed by a heat treatment for recycling cathode materials in EOL lithium‐ion batteries is demonstrated and analyzed. Using LiCoO 2 as an example, it is shown that the recycled LiCoO 2 materials show equivalent crystal structure, morphology, and electrochemical performance to the commercial LiCoO 2 .

Yang, Tairan↗

DOE OSTI2023

Dual Recycling of Depolymerization Catalyst and Biodegradable Polyester that Markedly Outperforms Polyolefins

Abstract Chemically recyclable, circular polymers continue to attract increasing attention, but rendering both catalysts for depolymerization and high‐performance polymers recyclable is a more sustainable yet challenging goal. Here we introduce a dual catalyst/polymer recycling system in that recyclable inorganic phosphomolybdic acid catalyzes selective depolymerization of high‐ceiling‐temperature biodegradable poly(δ‐valerolactone) in bulk phase, which, upon reaching suitable molecular weight, exhibits outstanding mechanical performance with a high tensile strength of ≈66.6 MPa, fracture strain of ≈904 %, and toughness of ≈308 MJ m −3 , and thus markedly outperforms commodity polyolefins, recovering its monomer in pure state and quantitative yield at only 100 °C. In sharp contrast, the uncatalyzed depolymerization not only requires a high temperature of >310 °C but is also low yielding and non‐selective. Importantly, the recovered monomer can be repolymerized as is to reproduce the same polymer, thereby closing the circular loop, and the recycled catalyst can be reused repeatedly for depolymerization runs without loss of its catalytic activity and efficiency.

Li, Xin‐Lei↗

DOE OSTI2017

Development of rapid bioconversion with integrated recycle technology for ethanol production from extractive ammonia pretreated corn stover

ABSTRACT High enzyme loading and low productivity are two major issues impeding low cost ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass. This work applied rapid bioconversion with integrated recycle technology (RaBIT) and extractive ammonia (EA) pretreatment for conversion of corn stover (CS) to ethanol at high solids loading. Enzymes were recycled via recycling unhydrolyzed solids. Enzymatic hydrolysis with recycled enzymes and fermentation with recycled yeast cells were studied. Both enzymatic hydrolysis time and fermentation time were shortened to 24 h. Ethanol productivity was enhanced by two times and enzyme loading was reduced by 30%. Glucan and xylan conversions reached as high as 98% with an enzyme loading of as low as 8.4 mg protein per g glucan. The overall ethanol yield was 227 g ethanol/kg EA‐CS (191 g ethanol/kg untreated CS). Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 1713–1720. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Jin, Mingjie↗

DOE OSTI2019

Integrated Polymer Dissolution and Solution Blow Spinning Coupled with Solvent Recovery for Expanded Polystyrene Recycling

With increasing buoyant plastic wastes entering into oceans and food chains, the disposal and recycling of waste expanded polystyrene (WPS) has become an imminent environmental problem. In this work, a recycling scheme for waste WPS is proposed that combines the polymer dissolution recycling approach with the solution blow spinning (SBS) technique that facilitates the high-volume bulk WPS transportation and the value-addition of WPS to nanofibers. Solvent selection is critical for an economical and environmentally favorable implementation of this recycling scheme at large scale. Here, the effect of three solvents with distinct volatility, viz. ethyl acetate, toluene, and N, N- dimethylformamide (DMF) have been studied on the fiber formation and the ease of the solvent recovery, in order to ascertain the practicability of using these solvents for the recycling process. The fiber formation is experimentally demonstrated for the WPS-solvent systems using the SBS process. It is found that the fiber morphology varies for the different WPS-solvent systems. A solvent recovery scheme to recover the solvent from the air-solvent mixture (leaving SBS) is evaluated using ASPEN Plus simulation. The % solvent recovery is determined as a function of the required energy input for different process parameters including compressor pressure and air to polymer solution feed ratio. The simulation studies show that a lower feed air to polymer solution ratio and higher compressor pressure are required to obtain > 70% solvent recovery for high volatility solvents (ethyl acetate and toluene) with lower energy input and optimal operating condenser temperature (~ 0 °C). Conversely, significant solvent losses occur in the SBS process with a lower volatility solvent (DMF), leading to a lower solvent recovery for the whole process. The % DMF recovery can be improved upon by using higher feed air to polymer solution ratio although at a higher energy penalty.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Design for Recycling Principles Applicable to Selected Clean Energy Technologies: Crystalline-Silicon Photovoltaic Modules, Electric Vehicle Batteries, and Wind Turbine Blades

Abstract The global growth of clean energy technology deployment will be followed by parallel growth in end-of-life (EOL) products, bringing both challenges and opportunities. Cumulatively, by 2050, estimates project 78 million tonnes of raw materials embodied in the mass of EOL photovoltaic (PV) modules, 12 billion tonnes of wind turbine blades, and by 2030, 11 million tonnes of lithium-ion batteries. Owing partly to concern that the projected growth of these technologies could become constrained by raw material availability, processes for recycling them at EOL continue to be developed. However, none of these technologies are typically designed with recycling in mind, and all of them present challenges to efficient recycling. This article synthesizes and extends design for recycling (DfR) principles based on a review of published industrial and academic best practices as well as consultation with experts in the field. Specific principles developed herein apply to crystalline-silicon PV modules, batteries like those used in electric vehicles, and wind turbine blades, while a set of broader principles applies to all three of these technologies and potentially others. These principles are meant to be useful for stakeholders—such as research and development managers, analysts, and policymakers—in informing and promoting decisions that facilitate DfR and, ultimately, increase recycling rates as a way to enhance the circularity of the clean energy economy. The article also discusses some commercial implications of DfR. Graphical Abstract

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2016

Understanding the impact of flow rate and recycle on the conversion of a complex biorefinery stream using a flow-through microbial electrolysis cell

We investigated the effect of flow rate and recycle on the conversion of a biomass-derived pyrolysis aqueous phase in amicrobial electrolysis cell (MEC) to demonstrate production of renewable hydrogen in biorefinery. A continuous MEC operation was investigated under one-pass and recycle conditions usingthe complex, biomass-derived, fermentable, mixed substrate feed at a constant concentration of 0.026 g/L,while testing flow rates ranging from 0.19 to 3.6 mL/min. This corresponds to an organic loading rate (OLR) of 0.54₋10 g/L-day. Mass transfer issues observed at low flow rates were alleviated using high flow rates.Increasing the flow rate to 3.6 mL/min (3.7 min HRT) during one-pass operation increased the hydrogen productivity 3-fold, but anode conversion efficiency (ACE) decreased from 57.9% to 9.9%. Recycle of the anode liquid helped to alleviate kinetic limitations and the ACE increased by 1.8-fold and the hydrogen productivity by 1.2-fold compared to the one-pass condition at the flow rate of 3.6 mL/min (10 g/L-d OLR). High COD removal was also achieved under recycle conditions, reaching 74.2 1.1%, with hydrogen production rate of 2.92 ± 0.51 L/L-day. This study demonstrates the advantages of combining faster flow rates with a recycle process to improve rate of hydrogen production from a switchgrass-derived stream in the biorefinery.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Screening green solvents for multilayer plastic film recycling processes

Multilayer (ML) plastic films are essential packaging materials that help protect products from diverse external factors; however, only 5% of all ML films are recycled in the United States. Solvent-based technologies are a promising alternative for recycling ML films because they enable recovery of constituent polymer resins. For example, the Solvent Targeted Recovery and Precipitation (STRAPTM) process sequentially dissolves and separates polymer components using a series of targeted solvent washes. A crucial design aspect of this process is the impact of selected solvents on human health and on the environment. Here, this work introduces a computational framework that integrates molecular modeling, process modeling, techno-economic analysis (TEA), and life-cycle analysis (LCA) to quickly screen green solvents for solvent-based ML recycling processes. Initial screening for solvents based on selectivity is performed by estimating temperature-dependent solubilities using molecular-scale models. Subsequent screening uses basic estimates of energy use and octanol-water partition coefficients (logP) as key measures of health, safety, and environmental hazards. Detailed process modeling, TEA, and LCA are used on a reduced set of promising solvents identified in early screening steps to more accurately determine how solvent selection and associated operating conditions impact overall economics and environmental impacts. The framework is used for the identification of green solvents (from a database of 1,000 solvents) that separate an industrial ML film composed of polyethylene (PE), ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Our analysis shows the effectiveness of the framework and reveals fundamental trade-offs between solvent greenness, solubility, and economics. Our work emphasizes the importance of taking a holistic systems view during solvent design and aims to inform the development of new processes for ML film recycling and the identification of new ML films that are easier to recycle.

economics↗

DOE OSTI2018

Organophosphorus esters (OPEs) in PM2.5 in urban and e-waste recycling regions in southern China: concentrations, sources, and emissions

Highlights: • OPE concentrations and compositions displayed great variations among the sources. • High OPE levels were related to the electronic, plastic, and chemical industries. • Correlations between OPEs suggests different emission mechanisms from the sources. • The total air emission of OPEs from the 20 urban industrial sources was 1460 kg/yr. • The total air emission of OPEs from the e-waste recycling facilities was 133 kg/yr. Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are novel ubiquitous contaminants that are attracting growing concern, but their emissions into the environment are still poorly understood. In this study, 12 OPEs were measured in fine particulate matter (PM{sub 2.5}) at 20 industrial sites in an urban region and four e-waste recycling facilities in a rural region in southern China. There was no significant difference in the concentrations of ∑OPEs between the urban region (519–62,747 pg/m{sup 3}, median = 2854 pg/m{sup 3}) and the rural e-waste region (775–13,823 pg/m{sup 3}, 3321 pg/m{sup 3}). High OPE concentrations in urban PM{sub 2.5} were generally associated with the electrical, electronic, plastic, and chemical industries. There were no significant correlations between most OPEs in these two regions, suggesting different emission mechanisms. The average emissions of ∑OPEs estimated using a simplified dispersion model were 73.0 kg/yr from the urban industrial point sources and 33.2 kg/yr from the e-waste recycling facilities. The estimated emission inventory from industrial activities in the whole city (3228–4452 kg/yr) was approximately 30-fold higher than that from the e-waste recycling (133 kg/yr) facilities because urban region has a much larger industrial scale. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first effort to model the emissions of OPEs from industrial and e-waste recycling activities to the atmosphere.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2018

Burial-driven methane recycling in marine gas hydrate systems

Natural gas hydrate may be buried with sediments until it is no longer stable at a given pressure and temperature, resulting in conversion of hydrate into free gas. This gas may migrate upward and recycle back into the hydrate stability zone to form hydrate. As of yet, however, no quantitative description of the methane recycling process has been developed using multiphase flow simulations to model burial-driven gas hydrate recycling. In this study, we present a series of 1D multiphase transport simulations to investigate the methane recycling process in detail. By invoking the effects of capillary phenomena on hydrate and gas formation in pores of varying size, we find that a free gas phase can migrate a significant distance above the bulk base of hydrate stability. Since the top of the free gas occurrence is often identified as the base of the hydrate stability zone from seismic data, our results demonstrate that not only could this assumption mischaracterize a hydrate system, but that under recycling conditions the highest hydrate saturations can occur beneath the top of the free gas occurrence. We show that the presence of pore size distributions requires a replacement zone through which hydrate saturations progressively decrease with depth and are replaced with free gas. This replacement zone works to buffer against significant gas buildup that could lead to fracturing of overlying sediments. In conclusion, this work provides a framework for simulating flow and transport of methane within the 3-phase stability zone from a mass conservation perspective.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Life-cycle analysis of recycling of post-use plastic to plastic via pyrolysis

Advanced recycling enables the application of post-use plastics (PUP) to produce valuable industrial chemicals and develop markets for recycled feedstocks. Pyrolysis is one of the most common advanced recycling technologies undergoing industrial-scale implementation for converting PUP. This paper presents a life cycle analysis (LCA) to assess greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, fossil energy, water consumption, and solid waste impacts of converting PUP into new plastics such as high-density and low-density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE, respectively). Data was collected from eight plastic pyrolysis companies. This study addresses the impacts of pyrolysis plant size and maturity; two substitution rate (SR) cases of pyrolysis oil with fossil-derived feedstocks in steam crackers (5% and a 20% of pyrolysis oil SR); and potentially avoided emissions from traditional end-of-life (EOL) management. Because the conventional feedstock slate of steam crackers in the Unites States is comprised of 94% gases (a mix of ethane, propane, and butane) and 6% naphtha, the 5% SR case looked at polyethylene (PE) derived from 5% pyrolysis oil, 1% naphtha, and 94% gases; while the 20% SR looked at PE derived from 20% pyrolysis oil and 80% gases. Moreover, the results are presented from two perspectives: 1) steam crackers' and 2) plastic recyclers'. In the recyclers' perspective, the results for the 5% SR showed for each kg of PUP used there was a 23% and 18% decrease in GHG emissions for HDPE and LDPE respectively, while the 20% SR showed a 4% and 3% reduction in GHG emissions for HDPE and LDPE respectively compared to virgin plastic. The 20% SR has lower GHG emissions reductions because there is an added step of hydrotreating the pyrolysis oil to remove chlorine concentrations that is not included in the 5% SR scenario. Furthermore, the 5% SR removes most of the naphtha, a more carbon intense feedstock, and replaces it with PUP-based pyrolysis oil, a less carbon intense feedstock. GHG emissions for PUP pyrolysis could be further reduced by 50% and 131% in the United States and European Union respectively if the GHG emissions of current PUP incineration practices were considered as emission reductions credits.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2012

N-type thermoelectric recycled carbon fibre sheet with electrochemically deposited Bi{sub 2}Te{sub 3}

An N-type thermoelectric recycled carbon fibre sheet with bismuth telluride coating has been successfully synthesised through an electro-deposition technique. The Seebeck coefficient and electrical properties of the combined recycled carbon fibre sheet and bismuth telluride films are reported. Classification of the crystal structure, surface morphology and the elemental composition of the resulting deposits are methodically characterised by XRD, SEM and EDX. Cyclic voltammetry is also carried out in nitric acid solutions to investigate the right range of deposition potential. The synthesis N-type thermoelectric sheet has a highest attainable Seebeck coefficient of -54 {mu}V K{sup -1} and an electrical resistivity of 8.9 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -5} Ohm-Sign m. The results show slight differences in morphologies and thermoelectric properties for the films deposited at varying deposition potential. The increase in thermoelectrical properties of the recycled carbon fibre is in line with the development of using coated recycled fibre for thermoelectrical applications. - Graphical abstract: SEM image of an N-type thermoelectric recycled carbon fibre sheet with Bi{sub 2}Te{sub 3} coatings. Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer N-type thermoelectric sheet is synthesis through the electrodeposition of Bi{sub 2}Te{sub 3}. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Bi{sub 2}Te{sub 3} composition can be controlled by varying the deposition voltage. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Seebeck coefficient and electrical properties of the combined sheet were reported. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Material characterisations of the deposits are done using XRD, SEM and EDX.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Energy and environmental aspects in recycling lithium-ion batteries: Concept of Battery Identity Global Passport

The emergence and dominance of lithium-ion batteries in expanding markets such as consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage are driving enormous interests and investments in the battery sector. The explosively growing demand is generating a huge number of spent lithium-ion batteries, thereby urging the development of cost-effective and environmentally sustainable recycling technologies to manage end-of-life batteries. Currently, the recycling of end-of-life batteries is still in its infancy, with many fundamental and technological hurdles to overcome. Here in this paper, the authors provide an overview of the current state of battery recycling by outlining and evaluating the incentives, key issues, and recycling strategies. The authors highlight a direct recycling strategy through discussion of its benefits, processes, and challenges. Perspectives on the future energy and environmental science of this important field is also discussed with respect to a new concept introduced as the Battery Identity Global Passport (BIGP).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Toward Efficient Entropic Recycling by Mastering Ring–Chain Kinetics

Traditional chemical recycling approaches for condensation polymers suffer compounding energy losses and CO 2 emissions across multiple polymerization and depolymerization cycles. Entropic recycling can address these energy losses by entrapping free energy within the deconstruction products. Entropic recycling involves depolymerization to macrocyclic monomers, but such processes have not been feasible due to the high dilutions typically required to generate macrocyclic compounds. Here, we leverage selective catalysis to allow entropic recycling at concentrations 20–2000× higher than typical for macrocyclization reactions. We find that Ru-based olefin metathesis catalysts containing bulky iodine ligands significantly bias the ring–chain kinetic product distribution during ring-closing metathesis (RCM) toward the formation of oligomeric cycloalkenes. Further improvements in reaction concentration and macrocycle yield are obtained by using high catalyst loadings and by predisposing the alkene substrates to undergo favorable macrocyclization. These RCM optimizations translate effectively to cyclodepolymerization (CDP) of an olefin-containing polymer, with RCM and CDP affording similar macrocycle product distributions under identical reaction conditions. Macrocycle polymerization by entropy-driven ring-opening metathesis provides much higher molecular weight polymers than condensation polymerization of linear analogues, reducing the time to achieve high molecular weight from hours to minutes and enabling polymerization at room temperature. Finally, our findings re-emphasize the importance of energy consumption during a polymer’s lifecycle and provide a framework for the design of efficient entropic recycling systems.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Reversible self-assembly of small molecules for recyclable solid-state battery electrolytes

Performance often overshadows recyclability in contemporary battery designs, leading to sustainability challenges. Preemptive strategies integrating recyclable chemistry from the outset are thus increasingly critical for addressing the complexities in conventional recycling. Here we harness bio-inspired molecular self-assembly to create inherently recyclable battery materials. We use aramid amphiphiles that self-assemble in water through strong, collective hydrogen bonding and π–π stacking, forming air-stable, high-aspect-ratio nanoribbons with gigapascal-level stiffness. When processed into bulk solid-state electrolytes, these nanoribbons retain their ordered molecular arrangement and exhibit total conductivities of 1.6 × 10 −4 S cm −1 at 50 °C, Young’s moduli of 70 MPa and toughness values of 1 MJ m −3 , despite being stabilized solely by reversible non-covalent bonds. We further demonstrate clean separation of battery components by exposing used cells to an organic solvent, which disrupts the non-covalent cohesion and reverts all battery components to their original forms. Furthermore, this study underscores the potential of molecular self-assembly for specialized recyclable designs in energy storage applications.

Batteries↗

DOE OSTI2011

The pinch of cold ions from recycling in the tokamak edge pedestal

We apply the ''natural fueling mechanism'' [W. Wan, S. E. Parker, Y. Chen, and F. W. Perkins, Phys. Plasmas 17, 040701 (2010)] to the edge pedestal. The natural fueling mechanism is where cold ions naturally pinch radially inward for a heat-flux dominated plasma. It is shown from neoclassical-neutral transport coupled simulations that the recycling neutrals and the associated source ions are colder than the main ions in the edge pedestal. These recycling source ions will pinch radially inward due to microturbulence. Gyrokinetic turbulence simulations indicate that near the top of the pedestal, the pinch velocity of the recycling source ions is much higher than the main ion outgoing flow velocity. The turbulent pinch of the recycling source ions may play a role in the edge pedestal transport and dynamics. The cold ion temperature significantly enhances the pinch velocity of the recycling source ions near to the pedestal top. Neoclassical calculations show a cold ion pinch in the pedestal as well.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Recycled Sm-Co bonded magnet filaments for 3D printing of magnets

Recycling of rare earth elements, such as Sm and Nd, is one technique towards mitigating long-term supply and cost concerns for materials and devices that depend on these elements. In this work recycled Sm-Co powder recovered from industrial grinding swarfs, or waste material from magnet processing, was investigated for use in preparation of filament for 3D printing of bonded magnets. Recycled Sm-Co powder recovered from swarfs was blended into polylactic acid (PLA). Up to 20 vol.% of the recycled Sm-Co in PLA was extruded at 160°C to produce a filament. It was demonstrated that no degradation of magnetic properties occurred due to the preparation or extrusion of the bonded magnet material. Good uniformity of the magnetic properties is exhibited throughout the filament, with the material first extruded being the exception. The material does exhibit some magnetic anisotropy, allowing for the possibility of the development of anisotropic filaments. Finally, this work provides a path forward for producing recycled magnetic filament for 3D printing of permanent magnets.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗