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At least 253 records · Page 14
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DOE OSTI2011

MAGNETOROTATIONAL-INSTABILITY-DRIVEN ACCRETION IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS

Non-ideal MHD effects play an important role in the gas dynamics in protoplanetary disks (PPDs). This paper addresses the influence of non-ideal MHD effects on the magnetorotational instability (MRI) and angular momentum transport in PPDs using the most up-to-date results from numerical simulations. We perform chemistry calculations using a complex reaction network with standard prescriptions for X-ray and cosmic-ray ionizations. We first show that whether or not grains are included, the recombination time is at least one order of magnitude less than the orbital time within five disk scale heights, justifying the validity of local ionization equilibrium and strong coupling limit in PPDs. The full conductivity tensor at different disk radii and heights is evaluated, with the MRI active region determined by requiring that (1) the Ohmic Elsasser number {Lambda} be greater than 1 and (2) the ratio of gas to magnetic pressure {beta} be greater than {beta}{sub min}(Am) as identified in the recent study by Bai and Stone, where Am is the Elsasser number for ambipolar diffusion. With full flexibility as to the magnetic field strength, we provide a general framework for estimating the MRI-driven accretion rate M-dot and the magnetic field strength in the MRI active layer. We find that the MRI active layer always exists at any disk radius as long as the magnetic field in PPDs is sufficiently weak. However, the optimistically predicted M-dot in the inner disk (r = 1-10 AU) appears insufficient to account for the observed range of accretion rates in PPDs (around 10{sup -8} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}) even in the grain-free calculation, and the presence of solar abundance sub-micron grains further reduces M-dot by one to two orders of magnitude. Moreover, we find that the predicted M-dot increases with radius in the inner disk where accretion is layered, which would lead to runaway mass accumulation if disk accretion is solely driven by the MRI. Our results suggest that stronger sources of ionization and/or additional mechanisms such as magnetized wind are needed to explain the observed accretion rates in PPDs. In contrast, our predicted M-dot is on the order of 10{sup -9} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1} in the outer disk, consistent with the observed accretion rates in transitional disks.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE ROLE OF TINY GRAINS ON THE ACCRETION PROCESS IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS

Tiny grains such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been thought to dramatically reduce the coupling between the gas and magnetic fields in weakly ionized gas such as in protoplanetary disks (PPDs) because they provide a tremendous surface area to recombine free electrons. The presence of tiny grains in PPDs thus raises the question of whether the magnetorotational instability (MRI) is able to drive rapid accretion consistent with observations. Charged tiny grains have similar conduction properties as ions, whose presence leads to qualitatively new behaviors in the conductivity tensor, characterized by n-bar /n{sub e}>1, where n{sub e} and n-bar denote the number densities of free electrons and all other charged species, respectively. In particular, Ohmic conductivity becomes dominated by charged grains rather than by electrons when n-bar /n{sub e} exceeds about 10{sup 3}, and Hall and ambipolar diffusion (AD) coefficients are reduced by a factor of ( n-bar /n{sub e}){sup 2} in the AD-dominated regime relative to that in the Ohmic regime. Applying the methodology of Bai, we find that in PPDs, when PAHs are sufficiently abundant ({approx}> 10{sup -9} per H{sub 2} molecule), there exists a transition radius r{sub trans} of about 10-20 AU, beyond which the MRI active layer extends to the disk midplane. At r < r{sub trans}, the optimistically predicted MRI-driven accretion rate M-dot is one to two orders of magnitude smaller than that in the grain-free case, which is too small compared with the observed rates, but is in general no smaller than the predicted M-dot with solar-abundance 0.1 {mu}m grains. At r > r{sub trans}, we find that, remarkably, the predicted M-dot exceeds the grain-free case due to a net reduction of AD by charged tiny grains and reaches a few times 10{sup -8} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}. This is sufficient to account for the observed M-dot in transitional disks. Larger grains ({approx}> 0.1 {mu}m) are too massive to reach such high abundance as tiny grains and to facilitate the accretion process.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

EVOLUTION OF THE SOLAR NEBULA. IX. GRADIENTS IN THE SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY OF THE SHORT-LIVED RADIOISOTOPES {sup 60}Fe AND {sup 26}Al AND THE STABLE OXYGEN ISOTOPES

Short-lived radioisotopes (SLRIs) such as {sup 60}Fe and {sup 26}Al were likely injected into the solar nebula in a spatially and temporally heterogeneous manner. Marginally gravitationally unstable (MGU) disks, of the type required to form gas giant planets, are capable of rapid homogenization of isotopic heterogeneity as well as of rapid radial transport of dust grains and gases throughout a protoplanetary disk. Two different types of new models of an MGU disk in orbit around a solar-mass protostar are presented. The first set has variations in the number of terms in the spherical harmonic solution for the gravitational potential, effectively studying the effect of varying the spatial resolution of the gravitational torques responsible for MGU disk evolution. The second set explores the effects of varying the initial minimum value of the Toomre Q stability parameter, from values of 1.4 to 2.5, i.e., toward increasingly less unstable disks. The new models show that the basic results are largely independent of both sets of variations. MGU disk models robustly result in rapid mixing of initially highly heterogeneous distributions of SLRIs to levels of {approx}10% in both the inner (<5 AU) and outer (>10 AU) disk regions, and to even lower levels ({approx}2%) in intermediate regions, where gravitational torques are most effective at mixing. These gradients should have cosmochemical implications for the distribution of SLRIs and stable oxygen isotopes contained in planetesimals (e.g., comets) formed in the giant planet region ({approx}5 to {approx}10 AU) compared to those formed elsewhere.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

ONSET OF FAST MAGNETIC RECONNECTION IN PARTIALLY IONIZED GASES

We consider quasi-stationary two-dimensional magnetic reconnection in a partially ionized incompressible plasma. We find that when the plasma is weakly ionized and the collisions between the ions and the neutral particles are significant, the transition to fast collisionless reconnection due to the Hall effect in the generalized Ohm's law is expected to occur at much lower values of the Lundquist number, as compared to a fully ionized plasma case. We estimate that these conditions for fast reconnection are satisfied in molecular clouds and in protostellar disks.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE PROPAGATION OF Ly{alpha} IN EVOLVING PROTOPLANETARY DISKS

We study the role resonant scattering plays in the transport of Ly{alpha} photons in accreting protoplanetary disk systems subject to varying degrees of dust settling. While the intrinsic stellar far-UV (FUV) spectrum of accreting T Tauri systems may already be dominated by a strong, broad Ly{alpha} line ({approx}80% of the FUV luminosity), we find that resonant scattering further enhances the Ly{alpha} density in the deep molecular layers of the disk. Ly{alpha} is scattered downward efficiently by the photodissociated atomic hydrogen layer that exists above the molecular disk. In contrast, FUV-continuum photons pass unimpeded through the photodissociation layer and (forward-)scatter inefficiently off dust grains. Using detailed, adaptive grid Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations we show that the resulting Ly{alpha}/FUV-continuum photon density ratio is strongly stratified; FUV-continuum-dominated in the photodissociation layer and Ly{alpha}-dominated field in the molecular disk. The enhancement is greatest in the interior of the disk (r {approx} 1 AU) but is also observed in the outer disk (r {approx} 100 AU). The majority of the total disk mass is shown to be increasingly Ly{alpha} dominated as dust settles toward the midplane.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

MORPHOLOGY OF THE RED RECTANGLE PROTO-PLANETARY NEBULA

The morphology of the Red Rectangle (RR) exhibits several singular attributes. Most prominent are a series of linear features perpendicular to the symmetry axis which appear as 'ladder rungs' across the nebula. At the edge of each 'rung' gas seemingly flows from bright knots in a parabolic shape toward the center of the nebula. We present a new model of the RR which explains these features as a projection effect of the more common concentric arcs seen in other proto-planetary nebulae (e.g., Egg Nebula). Using the three-dimensional morpho-kinematic modeling software SHAPE, we have created a model of the RR that consists of spherical shells evacuated by a bi-conical outflow. When the symmetry axis is oriented perpendicular to the line of sight, the spherical shells become linear, thereby reproducing the 'rungs' seen in the RR. When oriented at different inclinations, the linear features become spherical as observed in the Egg Nebula. The model also accurately reproduces the bright knots and the parabolic outflows from these knots that have proven difficult to explain in the past. Using this model, we are able to place a lower limit on the speed of the outflow of {approx}158 km s{sup -1}.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DUST GRAIN EVOLUTION IN SPATIALLY RESOLVED T TAURI BINARIES

Core-accretion planet formation begins in protoplanetary disks with the growth of small, interstellar medium dust grains into larger particles. The progress of grain growth, which can be quantified using 10 {mu}m silicate spectroscopy, has broad implications for the final products of planet formation. Previous studies have attempted to correlate stellar and disk properties with the 10 {mu}m silicate feature in an effort to determine which stars are efficient at grain growth. Thus far there does not appear to be a dominant correlated parameter. In this paper, we use spatially resolved adaptive optics spectroscopy of nine T Tauri binaries as tight as 0.''25 to determine if basic properties shared between binary stars, such as age, composition, and formation history, have an effect on dust grain evolution. We find with 90%-95% confidence that the silicate feature equivalent widths of binaries are more similar than those of randomly paired single stars, implying that shared properties do play an important role in dust grain evolution. At lower statistical significance, we find with 82% confidence that the secondary has a more prominent silicate emission feature (i.e., smaller grains) than the primary. If confirmed by larger surveys, this would imply that spectral type and/or binarity are important factors in dust grain evolution.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

TURBULENT CLUSTERING OF PROTOPLANETARY DUST AND PLANETESIMAL FORMATION

We study the clustering of inertial particles in turbulent flows and discuss its applications to dust particles in protoplanetary disks. Using numerical simulations, we compute the radial distribution function (RDF), which measures the probability of finding particle pairs at given distances, and the probability density function of the particle concentration. The clustering statistics depend on the Stokes number, St, defined as the ratio of the particle friction timescale, {tau}{sub p}, to the Kolmogorov timescale in the flow. In agreement with previous studies, we find that, in the dissipation range, the clustering intensity strongly peaks at St {approx_equal} 1, and the RDF for St {approx} 1 shows a fast power-law increase toward small scales, suggesting that turbulent clustering may considerably enhance the particle collision rate. Clustering at inertial-range scales is of particular interest to the problem of planetesimal formation. At these large scales, the strongest clustering is from particles with {tau}{sub p} in the inertial range. Clustering of these particles occurs primarily around a scale where the eddy turnover time is {approx}{tau}{sub p}. We find that particles of different sizes tend to cluster at different locations, leading to flat RDFs between different particles at small scales. In the presence of multiple particle sizes, the overall clustering strength decreases as the particle size distribution broadens. We discuss particle clustering in two recent models for planetesimal formation. We argue that, in the model based on turbulent clustering of chondrule-size particles, the probability of finding strong clusters that can seed planetesimals may have been significantly overestimated. We discuss various clustering mechanisms in simulations of planetesimal formation by gravitational collapse of dense clumps of meter-size particles, in particular the contribution from turbulent clustering due to the limited numerical resolution.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

PHOTOELECTRIC CROSS-SECTIONS OF GAS AND DUST IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS

We provide simple polynomial fits to the X-ray photoelectric cross-sections (0.03 keV < E < 10 keV) for mixtures of gas and dust found in protoplanetary disks. Using the solar elemental abundances of Asplund et al., we treat the gas and dust components separately, facilitating the further exploration of evolutionary processes such as grain settling and gain growth. We find that blanketing due to advanced grain growth (a{sub max} > 1 {mu}m) can reduce the X-ray opacity of dust appreciably at E{sub X} {approx} 1 keV, coincident with the peak of typical T Tauri X-ray spectra. However, the reduction of dust opacity by dust settling, which is known to occur in protoplanetary disks, is probably a more significant effect. The absorption of 1-10 keV X-rays is dominated by gas opacity once the dust abundance has been reduced to about 1% of its diffuse interstellar value. The gas disk establishes a floor to the opacity at which point X-ray transport becomes insensitive to further dust evolution. Our choice of fitting function follows that of Morrison and McCammon, providing a degree of backward compatibility.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

RESIDENCE TIMES OF PARTICLES IN DIFFUSIVE PROTOPLANETARY DISK ENVIRONMENTS. II. RADIAL MOTIONS AND APPLICATIONS TO DUST ANNEALING

The origin of crystalline grains in comets and the outer regions of protoplanetary disks remains a mystery. It has been suggested that such grains form via annealing of amorphous precursors in the hot, inner region of a protoplanetary disk, where the temperatures needed for such transformations were found, and were then transported outward by some dynamical means. Here we develop a means of tracking the paths that dust grains would have taken through a diffusive protoplanetary disk and examine the types and ranges of environments that particles would have seen over a 10{sup 6} yr time period in the dynamic disk. We then combine this model with three annealing laws to examine how the dynamic evolution of amorphous grains would have led to their physical restructuring and their delivery to various regions of the disk. It is found that 'sibling particles' - those particles that reside at the same location at a given period of time-take a wide range of unique and independent paths through the disk to arrive there. While high temperatures can persist in the disk for very long time periods, we find that those grains that are delivered to the cold outer regions of the disk are largely annealed in the first few x10{sup 5} yr of disk history. This suggests that the crystallinity of grains in the outer disk would be determined early and remain unchanged for much of disk history, in agreement with recent astronomical observations.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE OF PROTOPLANETARY DISKS UNDERGOING LAYERED ACCRETION

We calculate the temperature structures of protoplanetary disks (PPDs) around T Tauri stars heated by both incident starlight and viscous dissipation. We present a new algorithm for calculating the temperatures in disks in hydrostatic and radiative equilibrium, based on Rybicki's method for iteratively calculating the vertical temperature structure within an annulus. At each iteration, the method solves for the temperature at all locations simultaneously, and converges rapidly even at high (>>10{sup 4}) optical depth. The method retains the full frequency dependence of the radiation field. We use this algorithm to study for the first time disks evolving via the magnetorotational instability. Because PPD midplanes are weakly ionized, this instability operates preferentially in their surface layers, and disks will undergo layered accretion. We find that the midplane temperatures T{sub mid} are strongly affected by the column density {Sigma}{sub a} of the active layers, even for fixed mass accretion rate M-dot . Models assuming uniform accretion predict midplane temperatures in the terrestrial planet forming region several x 10{sup 2} K higher than our layered accretion models do. For M-dot < 10{sup -7} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1} and the column densities {Sigma}{sub a} < 10 g cm{sup -2} associated with layered accretion, disk temperatures are indistinguishable from those of a passively heated disk. We find emergent spectra are insensitive to {Sigma}{sub a}, making it difficult to observationally identify disks undergoing layered versus uniform accretion.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

GLOBAL MODELING OF RADIATIVELY DRIVEN ACCRETION OF METALS FROM COMPACT DEBRIS DISKS ONTO WHITE DWARFS

Recent infrared observations have revealed the presence of compact (radii {approx}< R{sub sun}) debris disks around more than a dozen metal-rich white dwarfs (WDs), likely produced by a tidal disruption of asteroids. Accretion of high-Z material from these disks may account for the metal contamination of these WDs. It was previously shown using local calculations that the Poynting-Robertson (PR) drag acting on the dense, optically thick disk naturally drives metal accretion onto the WD at the typical rate M-dot{sub PR}{approx}10{sup 8} g s{sup -1}. Here we extend this local analysis by exploring the global evolution of the debris disk under the action of the PR drag for a variety of assumptions about the disk properties. We find that massive disks (mass {approx}> 10{sup 20} g), which are optically thick to incident stellar radiation, inevitably give rise to metal accretion at rates M-dot {approx}>0.2 M-dot{sub PR}. The magnitude of M-dot and its time evolution are determined predominantly by the initial pattern of the radial distribution of the debris (i.e., ring-like versus disk-like) but not by the total mass of the disk. The latter determines only the disk lifetime, which can be several Myr or longer. The evolution of an optically thick disk generically results in the development of a sharp outer edge of the disk. We also find that the low-mass ({approx}< 10{sup 20} g), optically thin disks exhibit M-dot << M-dot{sub PR} and evolve on a characteristic timescale {approx}10{sup 5}-10{sup 6} yr, independent of their total mass.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DENSITY WAVES EXCITED BY LOW-MASS PLANETS IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS. I. LINEAR REGIME

Density waves excited by planets embedded in protoplanetary disks play a central role in planetary migration and gap opening processes. We carry out two-dimensional shearing sheet simulations to study the linear regime of wave evolution with the grid-based code Athena and provide detailed comparisons with theoretical predictions. Low-mass planets (down to {approx}0.03 M{sub Circled-Plus} at 1 AU) and high spatial resolution (256 grid points per scale height) are chosen to mitigate the effects of wave nonlinearity. To complement the existing numerical studies, we focus on the primary physical variables such as the spatial profile of the wave, torque density, and the angular momentum flux carried by the wave, instead of secondary quantities such as the planetary migration rate. Our results show percent level agreement with theory in both physical and Fourier spaces. New phenomena such as the change of the toque density sign far from the planet are discovered and discussed. Also, we explore the effect of the numerical algorithms and find that a high order of accuracy, high resolution, and an accurate planetary potential are crucial to achieve good agreement with the theory. We find that the use of a too large time step without properly resolving the dynamical timescale around the planet produces incorrect results and may lead to spurious gap opening. Global simulations of planet migration and gap opening violating this requirement may be affected by spurious effects resulting in, e.g., the incorrect planetary migration rate and gap opening mass.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DENSITY WAVES EXCITED BY LOW-MASS PLANETS IN PROTOPLANETARY DISKS. II. HIGH-RESOLUTION SIMULATIONS OF THE NONLINEAR REGIME

We investigate numerically the propagation of density waves excited by a low-mass planet in a protoplanetary disk in the nonlinear regime, using two-dimensional local shearing box simulations with the grid-based code Athena at high spatial resolution (256 grid points per scale height h). The nonlinear evolution results in the wave steepening into a shock, causing damping and angular momentum transfer to the disk. On long timescales this leads to spatial redistribution of the disk density, causing migration feedback and potentially resulting in gap opening. Previous numerical studies concentrated on exploring these secondary phenomena as probes of the nonlinear wave evolution. Here we focus on exploring the evolution of the basic wave properties, such as its density profile evolution, shock formation, and post-shock wave behavior, and provide comparison with analytical theory. The generation of potential vorticity at the shock is computed analytically and is subsequently verified by simulations and used to pinpoint the shock location. We confirm the theoretical relation between the shocking length and the planet mass (including the effect of the equation of state), and the post-shock decay of the angular momentum flux carried by the wave. The post-shock evolution of the wave profile is explored, and we quantitatively confirm its convergence to the theoretically expected N-wave shape. The accuracy of various numerical algorithms used to compute the nonlinear wave evolution is also investigated: we find that higher order spatial reconstruction and high resolution are crucial for capturing the shock formation correctly.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

PROTOPLANETARY DISK RESONANCES AND TYPE I MIGRATION

Waves reflected by the inner edge of a protoplanetary disk are shown to significantly modify Type I migration, even allowing the trapping of planets near the inner disk edge for small planets in a range of disk parameters. This may inform the distribution of planets close to their central stars, as observed recently by the Kepler mission.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE ELUSIVE {sup 60}Fe IN THE SOLAR NEBULA

No {sup 60}Ni or {sup 61}Ni anomalies have been detected in troilite inclusions from Muonionalusta, a 4565.3 {+-} 0.1 Ma old IVA iron meteorite, to the level of the analytical precision of 10 ppm. Because Muonionalusta troilite is very old, has a high Fe/Ni ratio, and is free of {sup 61}Ni anomalies, it is the ideal material in which to search for potential excesses of {sup 60}Ni produced by the decay of {sup 60}Fe (t{sub 1/2} = 2.62 Ma). The {sup 60}Ni/{sup 58}Ni and Fe/Ni ratios (up to 1680) measured here imply an upper limit for the initial {sup 60}Fe/{sup 56}Fe for the Muonionalusta troilite of 3 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -9}. Assuming that {sup 60}Fe was homogeneously distributed across the nebula, this result suggests that the solar system initial {sup 60}Fe/{sup 56}Fe ratio was less than 5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -9}, which is lower than previously measured by at least a factor of 50.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

OBSERVATIONAL CONSTRAINTS ON METHANOL PRODUCTION IN INTERSTELLAR AND PREPLANETARY ICES

Methanol (CH{sub 3}OH) is thought to be an important link in the chain of chemical evolution that leads from simple diatomic interstellar molecules to complex organic species in protoplanetary disks that may be delivered to the surfaces of Earthlike planets. Previous research has shown that CH{sub 3}OH forms in the interstellar medium predominantly on the surfaces of dust grains. To enhance our understanding of the conditions that lead to its efficient production, we assemble a homogenized catalog of published detections and limiting values in interstellar and preplanetary ices for both CH{sub 3}OH and the other commonly observed C- and O-bearing species, H{sub 2}O, CO, and CO{sub 2}. We use this catalog to investigate the abundance of ice-phase CH{sub 3}OH in environments ranging from dense molecular clouds to circumstellar envelopes around newly born stars of low and high mass. Results show that CH{sub 3}OH production arises during the CO freezeout phase of ice-mantle growth in the clouds, after an ice layer rich in H{sub 2}O and CO{sub 2} is already in place on the dust, in agreement with current astrochemical models. The abundance of solid-phase CH{sub 3}OH in this environment is sufficient to account for observed gas-phase abundances when the ices are subsequently desorbed in the vicinity of embedded stars. CH{sub 3}OH concentrations in the ices toward embedded stars show order-of-magnitude object-to-object variations, even in a sample restricted to stars of low mass associated with ices lacking evidence of thermal processing. We hypothesize that the efficiency of CH{sub 3}OH production in dense cores and protostellar envelopes is mediated by the degree of prior CO depletion.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

DUST PROPERTIES AND DISK STRUCTURE OF EVOLVED PROTOPLANETARY DISKS IN Cep OB2: GRAIN GROWTH, SETTLING, GAS AND DUST MASS, AND INSIDE-OUT EVOLUTION

We present Spitzer/Infrared Spectrograph spectra of 31 T Tauri stars (TTS) and IRAM/1.3 mm observations for 34 low- and intermediate-mass stars in the Cep OB2 region. Including our previously published data, we analyze 56 TTS and 3 intermediate-mass stars with silicate features in Tr 37 ({approx}4 Myr) and NGC 7160 ({approx}12 Myr). The silicate emission features are well reproduced with a mixture of amorphous (with olivine, forsterite, and silica stoichiometry) and crystalline grains (forsterite, enstatite). We explore grain size and disk structure using radiative transfer disk models, finding that most objects have suffered substantial evolution (grain growth, settling). About half of the disks show inside-out evolution, with either dust-cleared inner holes or a radially dependent dust distribution, typically with larger grains and more settling in the innermost disk. The typical strong silicate features nevertheless require the presence of small dust grains, and could be explained by differential settling according to grain size, anomalous dust distributions, and/or optically thin dust populations within disk gaps. M-type stars tend to have weaker silicate emission and steeper spectral energy distributions than K-type objects. The inferred low dust masses are in a strong contrast with the relatively high gas accretion rates, suggesting global grain growth and/or an anomalous gas-to-dust ratio. Transition disks in the Cep OB2 region display strongly processed grains, suggesting that they are dominated by dust evolution and settling. Finally, the presence of rare but remarkable disks with strong accretion at old ages reveals that some very massive disks may still survive to grain growth, gravitational instabilities, and planet formation.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗