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DOE OSTI2021

Performance Results for Sensor Assignment Problem as Solved on a Multi-Node Cluster

An earlier report described a procedure for optimal sensor set selection and its implementation on a computational cluster. This new and innovative capability was developed to facilitate a reduction in operations staffing levels to improve plant economics. By automating surveillance and maintenance tasks through early detection of degrading sensors and equipment, staff can be more efficiently deployed. The method uses automated reasoning and domain knowledge in the form of the conservation equations to infer from plant measurements the state of equipment health. Inclusion of domain knowledge addresses the problem that exists with pure data-driven methods that there are no rigorous guidelines for determining what constitutes an adequate sensor set. Formalizing the procedure for sensor set selection as we have done results in a more reliable and explainable diagnosis of plant equipment health. Importantly, from the standpoint of the plant owner, personnel are provided with an early and explicit diagnosis of an equipment problem. That in principle automates the process and eliminates having to send personnel into the plant to find the cause as typically occurs when a data-driven method detects an anomaly. In this report we describe first results obtained using a computational cluster to solve the sensor set selection problem as framed above. The case described addresses the problem of equipment health monitoring in the high-pressure (HP) feedwater system of a pressurized light water reactor as seen through the eyes of our collaborating utility partner. Maintenance of this system can amount to millions of dollars per year if equipment health issues go undiagnosed and lead to loss of function. On examining the potential that is inherent in the installed sensor set for diagnosing equipment health degradation, it was found that greater fault resolution capability can be achieved using a sensor set that is 20 percent fewer in number. The take-away is that compared to the installed sensor set there exists a more strategic assignment of sensors that will furnish better health monitoring capability and with fewer sensors. Where the problem defies solution by manual inspection, as is the case here, one can be found by an algorithm. The solution was obtained in four hours using 30 computational cores. The HP feedwater problem as posed above illustrates the added value of approaching the sensor selection problem as one amenable to algorithmic solution. This problem is of interest to advanced reactor designers and to utilities that are setting up remote monitoring and diagnostic centers.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2025

Microscopic Measurement: Need for Nuclear Material Sample Specimen Characterization Capability

The Surveillance, Fabrication, and Off-Site Operations team at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is beginning an update to the nuclear material machining lab in Superblock. Plutonium and other nuclear materials tend to accelerate the aging process for equipment and machines that would otherwise be maintainable for long lives. They have their lifespans shortened from deteriorated seals, embrittled polymer components, accelerated corrosion, and damage to electronics from exposure to radioactive materials. The cost of installation of equipment into a glove box (GB) tends to outstrip the cost of the equipment itself. Due to the magnification of cost, the historical approach to equipment installs has been to purchase and install the highest-quality and most robust equipment available to maximize time between failures and updates. To make room for the installation of a new lathe, the inspection GB is being moved to a different location within the machining lab. As part of the overall effort, the equipment within the inspection GB is being revisited. Current measurement capabilities are antiquated and starting to become problematic due to age. Advances in metrology are sought for more comprehensive characterization of scientific samples. This document aims to identify several options for the replacement of current measurement equipment and identify a system for purchase and eventual installation. The intention is not to select the cheapest system, but rather to identify a system that best meets the needs of both the operators and principal investigators (PI). Following the convention of the SYSM-5620 Design Thinking and System Engineering, it was determined that a laser confocal measurement system from Keyence is the most suitable option for our programmatic need. Form factor, capability, and maintainability were considered. Along with stakeholder input, to ensure the best decision for the Nuclear Material Technology Program.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

System and method for selective transmission and reception for stationary wireless networks

A system and methods for selective transmission and reception for stationary wireless networks. The system and method include an end user equipment, a primary base station, a core network, and a selective server. The end user equipment transmits a request for transmission to the primary base station receiver. The primary base station authenticates the end user equipment using a cellular network authentication process. The primary base station then searches for a time slot data for the end user equipment from the selective server and determines whether the time slot is open for transmission, steers a beam towards the end user equipment when time slot is open for transmission. The primary base station then enables transmission from the end user equipment, wherein the enabling is performed by the primary base station. The core network receives the transmission from the end user equipment.

Bhuyan, Arupjyoti↗

DOE OSTI2020

Nuclear Decontamination Evolution and Revolution - 20349

Decontamination, one of the oldest practices in the nuclear industry, is about to change. While no single approach to decontamination is appropriate in all situations, decontamination of highly contaminated surfaces is historically viewed as difficult and/or marginally effective and fixatives and strippable coatings are often called on to manage time sensitive contamination control issues. The deferral of proper decontamination can lead to accumulated concentrations of radioactive material increasing the risk of cross-contamination of workers and equipment while also increasing radiation levels, which further discourages decontamination. The results of the subject testing demonstrate that superior decontamination factors are readily achievable and the ALARA benefit of decontamination is viable through advanced decontamination technologies in conjunction with innovative application techniques. The collateral benefits will save countless radiological man-hours and personnel radiological exposure. The appropriate use of radiological decontamination techniques can prevent or limit the adverse effects of highly radioactive contamination in the work area. High levels of radiological contamination are typically associated with some of the most physically demanding work in the nuclear industry. Additionally, working in highly contaminated environments increases the risk of exposure to elevated levels of airborne radioactivity and radiation from the source term of the contamination, particularly in hard to reach areas or complex equipment. Veolia's Alaron Nuclear Services (Alaron), a fully integrated nuclear facility, has provided the nuclear industry waste treatment, consolidation, repackaging, and broad decontamination services for almost 35 years. In looking at solutions for its customers, as well as for their own facility, Alaron has recently collaborated with Environmental Alternatives, Inc. (EAI), which has provided innovative solutions addressing difficult nuclear decontamination and industrial cleaning challenges since 1989. This broad range of experience along with the products to support the work created an ideal partner for Alaron's needs at their facility. The benefits of collaboration were immediately recognizable to the management of both companies although the decontamination challenge was significant. Due to the nature of the services offered, contamination at the Alaron facility is routine. The recent decontamination experience at Alaron utilized an innovative surfactant process that quickly produces remarkably higher decontamination factors for both removable surface contamination and fixed contamination. Considering the time to decontaminate areas historically designated for high radiological hazard work, the results from this decontamination effort not only reduced contamination levels but also significantly lowered exposure rates in the working environment. The relative ease with which the surfactant is applied, combined with extraordinary decontamination test results, indicates the potential to alter current radiological work processes in a way that improves worker comfort, and removes radiological engineering barriers, allowing Alaron to complete complex radiological tasks more efficiently and effectively. In a series of two simple applications of the decontamination agent to contaminated high bay vertical surfaces, as well as a variety of horizontal and vertical surfaces with variable porousness and surface sealants, there was an overall reduction in removable contamination of approximately 73% with a reduction in area dose of approximately 93%. The results indicate additional reduction in fixed contamination with application of the surfactant. These values are much higher than experienced with more traditional decontamination agents. In conjunction with demonstrating EAI's surfactant on room surfaces, additional studies were conducted on complex geometry equipment including waste processing equipment, tools, and heavily contaminated parts normally handled from Alaron's customers. Evaluations were made with straight application of EAI's surfactant as well as adding additional techniques to the treatment which afforded revolutionary improvements in the levels of contamination removed. Successful decontamination with up to 95% reduction in removable contamination with just one application were demonstrated in several of the trials. This paper outlines the planned approach to use this technology, the variety of surfaces and equipment treated, and the results of the decontamination efforts. Furthermore, this paper discusses options for pretreatment of certain heavily contaminated equipment prior to employees handling and/or working with the equipment. The potential for dose saving and the reduced risk of cross-contamination with the added benefit of lower PPE requirements, produces an enormous potential for cost and time savings. Attendees will benefit from Alaron's experiences and more fully understand the capabilities of EAI's decontamination process. With the variety of contamination agents, forms and surfaces on which the technology was demonstrated, the information will be valuable to a broad cross-section of industry users. The significance of this report demonstrates superior decontamination factors are achievable utilizing the next evolution of decontamination technology and that the ALARA benefits of decontamination are available through advanced and modern decontamination efforts. The collateral benefits will save countless radiological man-hours and valuable personnel radiological exposure. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

Seismic isolation: A pathway to standardized advanced nuclear reactors

Standardizing advanced nuclear reactors is a pathway to substantially reducing their overnight capital cost and achieving parity with other power sources, including renewables and fossil fuels. The seismic load case has thwarted standardization of nuclear power plants because site-specific seismic hazard and local near-surface geology has triggered soil-structure-interaction analysis, design, equipment qualification, regulatory review, and licensing, ensuring that each build is different. To achieve standardized or site-independent certified advanced reactor designs, the impact of the seismic load case on the engineering and construction cost and time must be substantially mitigated. Seismic isolation is a mature technology that has been used for more than 30 years in non-nuclear sectors to substantially reduce earthquake demands in buildings and other infrastructure. In this paper, seismic isolation is used to enable standardization of advanced reactor designs, aimed at the complete re-use of a site-independent, certified design and repeated procurement of safety-class equipment. A pathway to standardized designs using seismic isolation is demonstrated for two fundamentally different advanced reactors: a molten salt reactor and a high temperature gas reactor. Each reactor building is equipped with three specialized pieces of safety-class equipment, namely, a reactor vessel, a steam generator, and a control rod drive mechanism housing that is attached to the reactor head. Analysis is performed per ASCE and ASME standards to design the buildings and the equipment for two base conditions: conventional (fixed base) and base isolated. The impact of the seismic load case is characterized for the reinforced concrete walls in the buildings and for the equipment, measured using vessel wall thickness and horizontal accelerations. Here the analysis results show that the fixed-base buildings, designed for a site of low seismic hazard (peak ground acceleration, PGA = 0.15 g) could be constructed at a site of much greater seismic hazard (PGA = 0.7 g) if seismic base isolation is employed. Importantly, the scope of the site-specific analysis, design, and qualification would be limited to the seismic isolators and the isolated substructure, drastically reducing plant-specific engineering, review, and licensing, and time to construction start. Regulatory challenges and opportunities with standardized reactor designs are identified.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Development of risk mitigation guidance for sensor placement inside mechanically ventilated enclosures – Phase 1

Guidance on Sensor Placement was identified as the top research priority for hydrogen sensors at the 2018 HySafe Research Priority Workshop on hydrogen safety in the category Mitigation, Sensors, Hazard Prevention, and Risk Reduction. This paper discusses the initial steps (Phase 1) to develop such guidance for mechanically ventilated enclosures. This work was initiated as an international collaborative effort to respond to emerging market needs related to the design and deployment equipment for hydrogen infrastructure that is often installed in individual equipment cabinets or ventilated enclosures. The ultimate objective of this effort is to develop guidance for an optimal sensor placement such that, when integrated into a facility design and operation, will allow earlier detection at lower levels of incipient leaks, leading to significant hazard reduction. Reliable and consistent early warning of hydrogen leaks will allow for the risk mitigation by reducing or even eliminating the probability of escalation of small leaks into large and uncontrolled events. To address this issue, a study of a real-world mechanically ventilated enclosure containing GH2 equipment was conducted, where CFD modeling of the hydrogen dispersion (performed by AVT and UQTR, and independently by the JRC) was validated by the NREL Sensor laboratory using a Hydrogen Wide Area Monitor (HyWAM) consisting of a 10-point gas and temperature measurement analyzer. In the release test, helium was used as a hydrogen surrogate. Expansion of indoor releases to other larger facilities (including parking structures, vehicle maintenance facilities and potentially tunnels) and incorporation into QRA tools, such as HyRAM is planned for Phase 2. It is anticipated that results of this work will be used to inform national and international standards such as NFPA 2 Hydrogen Technologies Code, Canadian Hydrogen Installation Code (CHIC) and relevant ISO/TC 197 and CEN documents.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

Experimental Characterization Test of a Grid-Forming Inverter for Microgrid Applications

Standardized experimental testing protocols for grid forming (GFM) inverters to ensure expected operation under both normal and contingency conditions do not exist. Such protocols increase the confidence of system owner/operators that an inverter deployed in a proposed system will engage in typical behaviors to ensure interoperability with other units and ancillary equipment (e.g. protection equipment). This paper presents systematic and comprehensive test protocols to evaluate the performance of GFM inverters under the following operational configurations: islanded operation, heterogeneous islanded operation (parallel with a synchronous generator), grid-connected operation, and transition operation. A commercial GFM inverter is used to verify the test protocols and to understand the inverter's performance and functionalities. In particular, required configuration and tuning of the inverter will be explained in the full paper to enrich the testing protocol.

black start↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fermilab's controls development with virtual accelerator

Control Systems development is often the last thing considered when designing and building new equipment, e.g. a new detector or superconducting RF LINAC; however when the new equipment is installed, it is the first thing desired to be operational for testing. Due to frequent delays in building new equipment and project deadlines, control system development and testing is often curtailed. A way to alleviate this problem is to simulate the control system, though this will be challenging for complex systems.The Fermilab PIP-II (proton improvement plan - II) project is being constructed at Fermilab to deliver $800\,MeV$ protons of $>1\,MW$ beam power to replace the present LINAC for the remainder of the existing accelerator complex. The new LINAC consists of a warm front end (WFE), 23 superconducting RF cryomodules (of 5 types), and a beam transfer line (BTL) to the existing complex.The accelerator physics group has a parallel project to create a digital twin (DT) of the PIP-II accelerator. We have coupled the EPICS controls to this DT and are developing both the DT and EPICS software in parallel. This will allow us to develop the EPICS software framework, the HMIs, sequences, high level physics applications, and other services for use in a fully functional control system.This presentation will detail the work that we have performed to date and show demonstrations of controlling and monitoring the status of the accelerator, as well as future plans for this work.

Hanlet, Pierrick [Fermilab]↗

DOE OSTI2020

Analysis of Space-Conditioning Loads in Commercial Buildings

Space conditioning end-uses, which include heating, cooling, and ventilation, represent a significant fraction of commercial building energy use, with a wide variety of heating and cooling technology options available in the market. In the interest of improving the overall efficiency of heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) technologies, governments, utilities and private sector entities have implemented a variety of market transformation policies that aim to influence consumer purchase decisions. To evaluate the costs and benefits of such programs, analysts typically postulate a hypothetical default equipment choice, and compare it to one that provides comparable service with lower energy and/or power use. The corresponding reduced operating cost provides a benefit that offsets the potential higher cost of improved efficiency. Typically, life-cycle cost or cash-flow analyses are used to quantify the net economic benefit. These analyses require the capability to assess how a given equipment design would perform across a broad range of characteristics, both of the building and of the local weather. While these assessments can be performed using customized building simulations, it is generally not practical to develop and validate detailed building simulation code to cover all the potential variations of equipment design and installation. An alternative, and somewhat simpler, approach is to solely use detailed building simulations to generate time series of heating and cooling loads in commercial buildings. These loads can then be used as input to more detailed, stand-alone engineering models that simulate HVAC system performance under different equipment designs. This approach was used to evaluate a range of high-efficiency commercial packaged air conditioner design options for the Department of Energy’s Appliance and Equipment Standards Program (DOE-EERE 2015). While there may be some loss of precision relative to full simulation, the accuracy of this approach is sufficient for practical applications of cost-benefit analysis. This report describes the development of a database of commercial building heating and cooling loads, generated using the EnergyPlus software package, a whole building energy use model supported by the Department of Energy (DOE-EERE 2020a). EnergyPlus takes as input a set of configuration files that describe the building itself (size, zoning, envelope characteristics, etc.) and the various systems within it (HVAC, lighting, water heating, etc.). This analysis uses a publicly available collection of commercial reference buildings (CRB), comprised of sixteen building types and three vintages (DOE-EERE 2020b; Deru et al 2011). Each building is simulated in eighteen different locations, covering a wide range of climatic conditions. The prototype building description files assign the type of HVAC equipment used, and capacities across climate zones.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Liquid Salt Combined-Cycle Pilot Plant Design

The work described in this report is responsive to the Office of Fossil Energy program ‘Energy Storage for Fossil Power Generation.’ This Phase I report has been prepared by Pintail Power LLC, with support from Nexant ECA, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and Southern Company Services as a deliverable for the U.S. Department of Energy for NETL Award DE-FE-00320016. The Liquid Salt Combined Cycle™ (LSCC™) technology provides large-scale energy storage integrated with Fossil Electric Generating Units (FEGUs) to meet critical needs in the energy transition by providing: • the lowest cost large-scale storage for time-shifting of renewable energy, • superior fuel efficiency to reduce GHGs from dispatchable resources, • flexible capacity and ramping to balance variability of wind and solar resources, • essential grid stability services to assure reliability of a low-carbon grid. The LSCC approach: • employs equipment that has already been proven in utility service, • uses safe, non-toxic, non-degrading, perpetual-life storage medium, • leverages and repurposes existing FEGU assets, • expands the value stack of energy storage to reduce market, financing, and commodity risks. Pintail Power has developed the LSCC technology to meet the need for reliable, efficient, and cost-effective integration of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) into a low-carbon electric grid by coupling proven thermal energy storage with proven gas turbines, steam turbines, and heat transfer equipment. This novel approach is intended to address the key issues facing the grid and operators of renewable and fossil generating units including: • Overgeneration and curtailment of renewables, • Need for fast ramping dispatchable resources, • Improved efficiency and flexibility of fossil units, • Additional peaking capacity to support electrification of transportation and heating, • Provision of reliability services to support high penetration of VRE, especially synchronous inertia and fast frequency response. A Technology Readiness assessment by EPRI confirmed that LSCC technology consists of commercially proven hardware used in industrial and utility applications. Although the novel LSCC approach has not yet been demonstrated as a complete system, interfaces between major components have been conservatively specified. A Phase III pilot is planned to demonstrate equipment integration and operation. The patented innovation is removal of the evaporator section from the exhaust heat recovery system, with the evaporation performed by stored energy in a separate steam generator. This arrangement couples renewable and fossil power generation via long-duration energy storage to deliver cost, performance, and operational synergies, including superior charging and discharging flexibility, reduced fuel consumption and lower CO 2 emissions compared to conventional Combined Cycle Power Plants, and low-cost, large-scale energy storage. The LSCC technology is composed of proven equipment integrated with gas turbine exhaust heat in a novel system. During charging, electric heaters raise the salt temperature as it flows from the Cold Salt Tank to the Hot Salt Tank. During discharging, hot salt produces steam from feedwater that is heated with gas turbine exhaust, which also superheats steam to drive a steam turbine. LSCC technology can be added to any combustion-turbine to integrate renewable energy, provide needed grid services, and increase the value of fossil electric generating units based on the technology’s following attributes: • Long-duration storage enables time-shifting of VRE to avoid curtailment and impairment of renewable assets. • Long storage duration combined with fast-charging capability increases arbitrage opportunities by storing more energy when the price is low and discharging more hours when the price is high. • Long storage duration allows resource adequacy to be supplied across multiple days to increase reliability and reduce risk. • The stored energy reduces fuel heat rate and GHG emissions, and increases merit, so the LSCC dispatches earlier and longer to increase the plant’s capacity factor and asset value. • The stored energy enables pre-heating and startup of the steam cycle, without operating the gas turbine, to enable fast startup and ramping when dispatched for discharge. • The steam turbine can operate without the gas turbine so it can provide valuable synchronous inertia during charging without consuming fuel. • Fast frequency response and regulation services can be provided during charging using solid-state heater and pump controls to vary the charge power input in response to grid signals. • The LSCC system can be configured for resilience including black start, islanded/micro-grid operation, and even self-recharging of storage using either gas turbine power or gas turbine exhaust heat. The commercialization plan is to add LSCC technology to existing simple cycle gas turbine power plants with the 50MW GE LM6000 aero-derivative gas turbine as the reference design basis. A Techno-economic assessment of the reference design evaluated the benefits (Levelized Avoided Cost of Energy) and costs (Levelized Cost of Energy). The plant definition included all major systems and budgetary vendor quotes. Pintail Power and NexantECA developed the overall cost estimate for the LSCC plant up to the total plant cost level, following the DOE-NETL cost estimate guidelines at AACE Class 3 (-20%/+30%). This includes the equipment cost, bulk material, direct and indirect labor costs to arrive at the bare erected cost. Engineering costs are factored from the BEC and added to it to arrive at the EPC cost. Process and project contingencies were then factored from the EPC cost and rolled-up to yield the total plant cost of $\$$184 million for 1746 MWh of discharge electricity. • At $\$$105/kWh, the reference plant costs less than any of the Energy Storage Systems evaluated by PNNL in 2020 for the Energy Storage Grand Challenge. Operations and Maintenance cost estimates were scaled from combined cycle practice, assuming that the LSCC unit was co-located with and sharing some labor expense with other units, to arrive at $\$$2.2 million per year. Plant economics were evaluated using prices from the ERCOT Day-Ahead Market for calendar year 2019 (excluding the market disruptions from the COVID pandemic and the February 2020 deep freeze event). Assuming economic dispatch in the ERCOT Day-Ahead market, the reference plant capacity factor would have discharged for 2777 hours at 91.9 MW, a 31.66% capacity factor, with a marginal cost of $\$$25.59/MWh, and a LACE of $\$$82.41/MWh. Fixed charges were calculated according to EIA guidelines to arrive at an LCOE of $\$$83.48. The benefit-to-cost ratio of 0.99 suggests that the reference plant would have been cost-effective and competitive in the market. EPRI interviewed selected utilities to gauge the need for, applicability of and interest in the LSCC system. Several utilities are currently managing increased load growth along with the inclusion of increasing levels of renewable generation, putting pressure on conventional generation by requiring increased turndown requirements and ultimately lower capacity factors. All of the utilities interviewed have CO 2 reduction targets in the 2030-2050 timeframe that will severely limit the participation of fossil generation and require better utilization of carbon free generation. While there is limited opportunity for storage in the current markets, the utilities interviewed stated that there will be a substantial need for long duration energy storage in the future given the expected trends. Utilizing an energy storage system will generally be preferred over new gas capacity in some cases, with the capabilities of the LSCC system being a potential option for retrofit to existing simple cycle gas turbine units, allowing them to deliver greater participation in the market with lower carbon intensity. A technology gap assessment and technology maturation plan identified a pilot-scale demonstration as the final step before commercialization. Key gaps to be addressed during the Phase II FEED (Front-End Engineering Design) are component selection and design, commissioning procedures, and operational procedures and the control system for LSCC charging and discharging. The project team has been expanded to include Wood Group PLC as EPC. The proposed Phase II work leads to a pilot-scale engineering demonstration (TRL 6) to be conducted at Southern Company’s Plant Rowan, where the prototype system will perform “all the functions that will be required of the operational system.” The proposed pilot will facilitate commercialization (TRL-9) by scale-up to utility-scale systems integrated with peaking GTs or directly to facility scale systems using industrial GTs. The conceptual design for the pilot plant focuses on the novel integration aspects of LSCC technology. A slipstream of gas turbine exhaust will feed a waste heat recovery unit coupled to a molten salt steam generator heated by stored energy. The pilot is intended to demonstrate all key operating modes of the LSCC technology during charging, discharging and standby. The pilot equipment will be approximately one-seventh scale of the LM6000 commercial target and is expected to have commercial off-ramp potential for facility-scale applications.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2022

Manufacturing Supply Chain Development for Modular Solar-Thermochemical Conversion Platform - CRADA 387 (Final Report)

Modular chemical process intensification (MCPI) is an emerging field where chemical processing is performed using small-scale modular equipment instead of conventional large centralized chemical plants. Conventional chemical plants benefit from economies of scale that encourage scale-up to ever larger plants. A goal of MCPI is to develop technology that intensifies processing so that equipment can be dramatically smaller and integrated into modular systems. Scale-up occurs by adding more modules in parallel rather than making the equipment larger. A key concept is that equipment and modules can ultimately be cheaper by leveraging economies of mass production, analogous to the automotive industry, in manufacturing the equipment. This project made significant progress toward this outcome by meeting the RAPID institute metric to reduce equipment cost by 20% for each doubling in manufacturing volume. The MCPI application was thermochemical technology that is being commercialized by STARS Technology Corporation, one of the CRADA partners. The technology converts solar and renewable power to chemical energy to produce renewable hydrogen, fuels, and chemicals. The benefit to the public is reduction in greenhouse gases that are contributing to climate change. The project transitioned the steam methane reforming (SMR) reactor from conventional fabrication methods to additive manufacturing (AM) direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process. This is projected to reduce the cost of making a reactor by 58% when producing 100 reactors per year. Innovations in the DMLS process produced a patented design that reduces reactor weight by 60%. Reductions in material costs and processing time extend the DMLS advantage to higher production volumes. The new design promises to be 38% cheaper than the conventional processes at 1000 units per year. The resulting 87% reduction in the steam methane reforming (SMR) module cost in scaling from current costs meets the RAPID metric. The project was successful in producing and testing the first ever additively manufactured SMR reactors. A reactor achieved over 82% efficiency in converting electric power to chemical energy, which is a world record for an inductively heated SMR. The project has contributed to the design and assembly of a first demonstration plant that is headed to a hydrogen bus filling station in Thousand Palms, CA.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Technical Specification Surveillance Interval Extension Using Self-Diagnostics

As part of the Light Water Reactor Sustainability program, an ongoing research effort is being conducted on technical specifications surveillance interval extension of digital equipment in nuclear power plants. The research team is led by Idaho National Laboratory and includes Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Technology Resources, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. This research focuses on developing methods for applying the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)–approved guidance to implement a licensee-controlled, risk-informed surveillance frequency change program in digital instrumentation and control (I&C) systems that include self-diagnostics and online monitoring (OLM) capabilities. Although approved methods exist for extending technical specifications (TS) surveillance test intervals (STIs) for general equipment, including analog I&C equipment, gaps remain in technology and guidance on crediting newer digital equipment’s internal self-diagnostics and OLM characteristics. Previous research described a general methodology for crediting internal self-diagnostics for extending surveillance test intervals. The methodology used self-diagnostics to detect—and credited recovery from—failure. Self-diagnostics were also applied for performance monitoring during the extended surveillance interval. This report discusses the status of recent activities to evaluate the previously developed methodology using a pilot study. Although both a utility partner for a pilot study and a specific digital asset were identified in FY2020, delays in obtaining proprietary information resulted in a limited ability to fully evaluate the methodology, and further interactions were complicated by the COVID pandemic. Therefore, at that time, the use of public-domain information—along with current processes for surveillance interval extension through a surveillance frequency control program—identified the need to fully assess diagnostic coverage as part of the pilot study. Furthermore, self-diagnostics were also identified as a potential option to replace the drift analyses conducted as part of current STI extension procedures. In FY2022, the project was reconstituted with the industry partner, and information and data were made available by the industry partner to the research team for review. The shared information included failure event descriptions and data for a digital I&C system since its implementation, as well as recent STI extension interval reports developed by the utility partner on that digital I&C system. This report presents an evaluation of this information and data and describes an application of the proposed methodology cited above. The methodology seeks to take advantage of the self-diagnostics and OLM capabilities to reduce risk or reduce the level of qualitative monitoring assessment needed to perform a risk-informed STI extension using existing NRC approved guidance or both. Addressing these issues of STI extension by crediting self-diagnostics is likely to result in benefits for current and future nuclear power plant (NPP) operations, including lowering the barriers to adoption of digital I&C systems and increasing cost savings by deferring or eliminating unneeded preventive maintenance (tasks or checks or activities). Specifically, self-diagnostic and OLM capabilities of newer digital equipment being installed in non-safety and safety applications are designed to detect failures, provide early warning of potential failures, and notify plant operators to take appropriate action to reduce out of service (OOS) time thus protecting safety margins. Moreover, the equipment is expected to provide information that time-related operational degradation is identified early to ensure timely and planned corrective actions instead of a reactive and unplanned approach ahead of an extended-surveillance interval.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2021

Safe Operations at Roadway Junctions - Design Principles from Automated Guideway Transit

Herein this paper describes a system-level view of a fully automated transit system comprising a fleet of automated vehicles (AVs) in driverless operation, each with an SAE level 4 Automated Driving System, along with its related safety infrastructure and other system equipment. This AV system-level control is compared to the automatic train control system used in automated guideway transit technology, particularly that of communications-based train control (CBTC). Drawing from the safety principles, analysis methods, and risk assessments of CBTC systems, comparable functional subsystem definitions are proposed for AV fleets in driverless operation. With the prospect of multiple AV fleets operating within a single automated mobility district, the criticality of protecting roadway junctions requires an approach like that of automated fixed-guideway transit systems, in which a guideway switch zone "interlocking" at each junction location deconflicts railway traffic, affirming safe passage. The analogous AV protection safety subsystem is defined as fail-safe equipment that monitors roadway intersections and junctions, communicates traffic signal status, perceives and communicates alerts and signals to AV connected vehicles concerning potential unsafe conditions, and performs related primary safety functions. Conclusions are drawn that the AV protection roadway intersection functions must be performed by local roadside equipment dedicated to protecting each roadway intersection and junction. Further, it is concluded that the communications technology connecting the infrastructure with the vehicle to perform this vital, fail-safe protection should meet specific functional and performance criteria.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Special Considerations for the Removal and Disposal of Micro-Reactor Experiments

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is preparing to host several microreactor experiments through 2030 and beyond. Two new test beds currently under development will operate as microreactor or nuclear system experiment user facilities. Test bed experiments will be performed in series, with each nuclear experiment installed, operated, and removed before installation of the subsequent experiment. The necessarily brief transition period between experiments introduces unique equipment removal and radioactive waste disposal challenges. This paper evaluates equipment removal and radioactive waste management topics associated with tight sequencing of nuclear experiments and presents some of the solutions and approaches currently planned to meet these special considerations for one such experiment, the Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment (MCRE), slated for operation at INL’s Laboratory for Operation and Testing in the United States (LOTUS). The MCRE project is a collaboration between Southern Company Services, TerraPower, and INL, among others, to provide integral nuclear data that will advance molten salt fast reactor technology. MCRE will be the first critical fast-spectrum circulating fuel system ever operated and the first experiment operated in the LOTUS test bed. The experiment will nominally operate at zero power with planned low power excursions as part of operational planning for MCRE has been to minimize at-power operations to limit fission product formation while still achieving experimental objectives. After the experiment is complete, MCRE will be allowed to radioactively decay for a short period (nominally 90 days) prior to system defueling, flushing, removal, and disposal of all MCRE equipment, readying the test bed for the next nuclear experiment. Equipment removal and radioactive waste disposal have been integral to MCRE project planning since the Cooperative Research and Development Agreement was formalized in 2021. Due to requirements for future use of the test bed, the MCRE system, of necessity, must be removed in a much shorter time frame than typical for historic reactor decommissioning projects at INL. This results in minimal time for radioactive decay, resulting in not only elevated radiation dose rates but also the presence of short-to-medium-lived isotopes not typically encountered in the reactor decommissioning and radioactive waste management space. Additional unique constraints placed on the project include lack of intrinsic remote-operations capabilities in the test bed, space constraints in the test bed once MCRE has been installed, and contamination minimization requirements to return the test bed to as-found conditions to enable future use. This paper discusses planned solutions to these challenges. Approaches for implementing remote or semi-remote technologies in a non-hot cell environment with limited space availability are discussed. The paper also summarizes the systems engineering approach for concept development and design of equipment removal systems, which are being implemented concurrent with the MCRE design phase, providing feedback to system designers to incorporate features enabling efficient and safe equipment removal approaches. The timing of this paper at a relatively early phase of the project is meant to highlight the importance of early planning for nuclear system decommissioning while reactor design is ongoing to allow design feedback on componentry driven from decommissioning system needs. As new, innovative nuclear reactor technologies enter the nuclear market sector, reactor experiments are crucial for providing new integral nuclear data that establish safe operational margins for technology advancement. Microreactor experiments at INL will require safe, effective, and timely decommissioning approaches, which in turn require nuclear systems designed to expedite decommissioning. In addition to the advancement of nuclear reactor technologies, these nuclear experiments provide an opportunity to demonstrate, deploy, and test new removal and disposal capabilities to support the next generation of nuclear reactor technology.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2023

Cost analysis of hydrogen production by high-temperature solid oxide electrolysis

In this study, we estimate construction and operation costs of gigawatt-scale solid oxide electrolysis (SOE) facilities for producing high purity hydrogen gas from water. Manufacturing and assembly costs for two types of SOE cell stacks are estimated using a detailed design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA®) analysis. Modular balance of plant (BOP) process equipment is designed and sized with Aspen®, and cost estimated using equipment vendor quotes. Factory and on-site assembly and installation costs for SOEC stack and BOP equipment integration into modular SOE process units are calculated using a simplified DFMA® method. Total stack costs on a stack input power (SIP) basis reduce to <$100/kW e DC SIP for >500 MW e DC SIP /year production rates with electrode cermet, interconnects, and high-temperature heat treatments dominating the total cost. Integration of stacks with larger BOP equipment operating at higher pressures offers ~36% cost reduction in total facility capital cost due to an economies of physical scale effect since BOP equipment comprises >50% of facility costs. Optimized H 2 prices decrease from ~$\$$4/kgH 2 to ~$\$$2/kgH 2 for 1 GWe DCSIP facilities using $\$$0.025/kWh electricity price. All costs are reported in 2021 US dollars.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Cross-domain digital twin architecture for predictive maintenance via machine learning and Large Language Models

This research introduces a comprehensive framework for creating and deploying a digital twin platform for continuous monitoring and predictive maintenance within industrial settings. Through utilizing advanced technologies, including Unreal Engine 5, Unity 3D, the Message Queue Telemetry Transport protocol, Random Forest machine learning algorithms, and Large Language Models (LLMs), we establish a platform that digitally reproduces physical equipment and translates digital controls into real-world actions. This facilitates preventive maintenance approaches and improves operational effectiveness. The digital twin platform gathers sensor data from operational equipment, analyzes it using machine learning, and delivers practical insights to prevent potential malfunctions and enhance equipment performance. Furthermore, the incorporation of a web portal enables efficient monitoring and access to historical data, educational materials, and equipment status information. Preliminary findings indicate that digital twins can transform industrial equipment management and maintenance methodologies.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗

DOE OSTI2022

Optimal Control of Biomass Feedstock Processing System Under Uncertainty in Biomass Quality

Planning of biorefinery operations is complicated by the stochastic nature of physical and chemical characteristics of biomass feedstock, such as, moisture level and carbohydrate content. Biomass characteristics affect the performance of the equipment which feed the reactor and the efficiency of the conversion process in a biorefinery. We propose a stochastic optimization model to identify a blend of feedstocks, inventory levels, and operating conditions of equipment to ensure a continuous flowing of biomass to the reactor while meeting the requirements of the biochemical conversion process. We propose a sample average approximation (SAA) of the model, and develop an efficient algorithm to solve the SAA model. A feedstock preprocessing process consists of two-stage grinding and pelleting is used to develop a case study. Extensive numerical analysis are conducted which lead to a number of observations. Our main observation is that sequencing bales based on moisture level and carbohydrate content leads to robust solutions that improve processing time and processing rate of the reactor. We provide a number of managerial insights that facilitate the implementation of the model proposed. Note to Practitioners—This paper is motivated by the challenges faced in the bioenergy industry. The focus of this paper is on plants which use the biochemical conversion process to generate liquid fuels. It has been observed that variations in biomass characteristics, such as moisture content, cause variations in feeding of the system which lead to under-utilization of equipment. A requirement of biochemical conversion process is to maintain the carbohydrate content of biomass processed by the reactor, larger than a threshold. We propose a model that identifies the inventory levels and operating conditions of equipment to ensure a continuous flowing of biomass to the reactor. The goal is to improve equipment utilization while satisfying the requirements of the conversion process. The model is tested using real-life data. We found out that by sequencing bales based on moisture level and carbohydrate content, a plant can reduce variability in the system leading to improved system reliability, higher processing rates of the reactor, and higher throughput.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Visualizing Comparisons of Bill of Materials

Protecting critical infrastructure from cyber attacks, natural disasters, and other disruptions is a priority of the U.S. Government. Critical infrastructure includes providing electricity to homes and businesses, supplying natural gas for heating, and producing renewable energy sources. A loss of these services, as seen in the Solarwinds supply chain attack in 2020 , Texas snowstorm of 2021, the Colonial Pipeline cyber incident of 2021, and the Washington power substation attacks in 2022 result in high costs to consumers, disruption of everyday life, and even death. To protect the infrastructure, we first have to know what equipment we are protecting. The complexity of distributed manufacturing and development coupled with the increasing prevalence of cyber and supply chain attacks necessitates a greater understanding of the hardware and software components that comprise equipment in critical infrastructure. When a vulnerability in a single software library can have disastrous consequences, it is vital to understand critical equipment and systems at a granular level. This need has led to increased energy around the development and incorporation of bill-of-materials (BOM) into existing asset management practices to aid in mitigating, and responding to future attacks \cite{noauthor_software_nodate}. While much of the current research is devoted to creating BOMs, it is equally important to develop methodologies for leveraging BOMs to answer questions, such as: How has my software changed? Are two pieces of equipment equivalent? Does this piece of equipment that just arrived match my historical information? In this work, we demonstrate how BOMs can be represented by graph structures. We then describe how these structures can be fed into a graph comparison algorithm to produce a novel interactive visualization that allows us to not only identify differences in BOMs, but show exactly where they are in the product.

Jones, Rebecca D.↗