Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “Burning number”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 253 records · Page 14

Droplet Combustion in a Slow Convective Flow

The influences of slow convective flow on droplet combustion, particularly in the low Reynolds number regime, have received very little attention in the past. Most studies in the literature are semi-empirical in nature and they were motivated by spray combustion applications in the moderate to high Reynolds number regime. None of the limited number of fundamental theoretical studies applicable to low Reynolds numbers have been verified by rigorous experimental data. Moreover, many unsteady phenomena associated with fluid-dynamic unsteadiness, such as impulsive starting or stopping of a burning droplet, or flow acceleration/deceleration effects, have not been investigated despite their importance in practical applications. In this study we investigate the effects of slow convection on droplet burning dynamics both experimentally and theoretically. The experimental portion of the study involves both ground-based experiments in the drop towers and future flight experiments on board the International Space Station. Heptane and methanol are used as test fuels, and this choice complements the quiescent-environment studies of the Droplet Combustion Experiment (DCE). An analytical model that employs the method of matched asymptotic expansions and uses the ratio of the convective velocity far from the droplet to the Stefan velocity at its surface as the small parameter for expansion has also been developed as a part of this investigation. Results from the ground-based experiments and comparison with the analytical model are presented in this report.

Nayagam, V.↗

Flight-Determination of the Low-Lift Drag and Longitudinal Stability of a 1/10-Scale Rocket-Powered Model of the Douglas XF4D-1 Airplane at Mach Numbers from 0.7

A flight investigation has been made to determine the drag and longitudinal stability of a 1/10- scale model of the Douglas XF4D-1 airplane from Mach numbers 0.7 to 1.4 at lift coefficients near zero. The drag rise occurred near M = 0.95. The external drag coefficient was a constant value of about 0.012 at subsonic speeds up to the point of drag rise where it increased abruptly to a value of 0.030 at M = 1.0 followed by a more gradual increase to a value of 0.038 at M = 1.25. The model indicated that, at 35,000 feet and a level-flight free-stream Mach number of 1.0, the drag of the full-scale airplane would exceed the thrust available from an XJ40-WE-8 engine with after-burning. The transonic trim change was small. The aerodynamic center moved gradually from the most forward location of 21.0-percent mean aerodynamic chord at M = 0.9 to the most rearward location of 40-percent mean aerodynamic chord at M = 1.25. The damping in pitch was low.

Mitcham, Grady L.↗

Fine Ash-Bearing Particles as a Major Aerosol Component in Biomass Burning Smoke

Biomass burning (BB) events are occurring globally with increasing frequency, and their emissions are having more impacts on human health and climate. Large ash particles are recognized as a BB product with major influences on soil and water environments. However, fine-ash particles, which have diameters smaller than several microns and characteristic morphologies and compositions (mainly Ca and Mg carbonates), have not yet been explicitly considered as a major BB aerosol component either in field observations or climate models. This study measured BB aerosol samples using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and ion chromatography during the Fire Influence on Regional to Global Environments and Air Quality (FIREX-AQ) campaign. We show that significant amounts of fine ash-bearing particles are transported >100 km from their fire sources. Our environmental chamber experiments suggest that they can act as cloud condensation and ice nuclei. We also found considerable amounts of fine ash-bearing particles in the TEM samples collected during previous campaigns (Biomass Burning Observation Project and Megacity Initiative: Local and Global Research Observations). These ash particles are commonly mixed with organic matter and make up ~8% and 5% of BB smoke by number and mass, respectively, in samples collected during the FIREX-AQ campaign. The measured ash-mass concentrations are approximately five times and six times greater than those of BB black carbon and potassium, respectively, scaling to an estimated global emission of 11.6 Tg yr -1 with a range of 8.8–16.3 Tg yr -1 . Better characterization and constraints on these fine ash-bearing particles will improve BB aerosol measurements and strengthen assessments of BB impacts on human health and climate.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

On the Red Antenna States of Photosystem I Mutants from Cyanobacteria Synechocystis PCC 6803

To identify the molecular composition of the low-energy states in cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PSI) of Synechocystis PCC6803, we focus on high resolution (low-temperature) absorption, emission, resonant, and nonresonant hole burned spectra obtained for wild-type (WT) PSI and three PSI mutants. In the Red_a mutant, the B33 chlorophyll (Chl) is added to the B31-B32 dimer; in Red_b, histidine 95 (His95) on PsaB (which coordinates Mg in the B7 Chl within the His95-B7-A31-A32- cluster) is replaced with glutamine (Gln), while in the Red_ab mutant, both mutations are made. We show that the C706 state (B31-B32) changes to the C710 state (B31-B32-B33) in both Red_a and Red_ab mutants, while the C707 state in WT Synechocystis (localized on the His95-B7-A31-A32 cluster) is modified to C716 in both Red_b and Red_ab. Excitation energy transfer from C706 to the C714 trap in the WT PSI and Red_b mutant is hampered as reflected by a weak emission at 712 nm. Large electron-phonon coupling strength (exposed via resonant hole-burned spectra) is consistent with a strong mixing of excited states with intermolecular charge transfer states leading to significantly red-shifted emission spectra. We conclude that excitation energy transfer in PSI is controlled by fine-tuning the electronic states of a small number of highly conserved red states. Finally, we show that mutations modify the protein potential energy landscape as revealed by different shapes and shifts of the blue- and red-shifted antiholes.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗

Interannual variability and trends of summertime PM2.5-based air quality in the Intermountain West

Abstract Summertime air quality is a growing public health concern in the populated region of Northern Utah. Whereas winter air pollution is highly linked with local atmospheric temperature inversions associated with upper atmospheric high-pressure and radiational cooling in valleys, the relationship between climate factors and the frequency of poor air quality during summer is still unknown. Analyzing the last 20 years of data, we demonstrated that summertime unhealthy days (as defined by PM2.5 air quality index level) in Northern Utah highly correlate with the number of dry-hot days, wildfire size, and an upper atmospheric ridge over the Northwestern United States. The persistent atmospheric ridge enhances lightning-caused fire burned areas in northwestern states and then transports the wildfire smoke toward Northern Utah. Similarly, climate model simulations confirm observational findings, such as an increasing trend of the upper atmospheric ridge and summertime dry days in the northwestern states. Such metrics developed in this study could be used to establish longer-term monitoring and seasonal forecasting for air quality and its compounding factors, which is currently limited to forecasting products for only several days.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

Soot loading in a generic gas turbine combustor

Variation in soot loading along the centerline of a generic gas turbine combustor was experimentally investigated. The 12.7-cm dia burner consisted of six sheet-metal louvers. Soot loading along the burner length was quantified by acquiring measurements first at the exit of the full-length combustor and then at upstream stations by sequential removal of liner louvers to shorten the burner length. Alteration of the flow field approaching removed louvers, maintaining a constant liner pressure drop. Burner exhaust flow was sampled at the burner centerline to determine soot mass concentration and smoke number. Characteristic particle size and number density, transmissivity of the exhaust flow, and local radiation from luminous soot particles in the exhaust flow were determined by optical techniques. Four test fuels were burned at three fuel-air ratios to determine fuel chemical property and flow temperature influences. Data were acquired at two combustor pressures. Particulate concentration data indicated a strong oxidation mechanism in the combustor secondary zone, though the oxidation was significantly affected by flow temperature. Soot production was directly related to fuel smoke point. Less soot production and lower secondary-zone oxidation rates were observed at reduced combustor pressure.

Eckerle, W. A.↗

High Stability Engine Control (HISTEC)

Future aircraft turbine engines, both commercial and military, must be able to successfully accommodate expected increased levels of steady-state and dynamic engine-face distortion. The current approach of incorporating a sufficient component design stall margin to tolerate these increased levels of distortion would significantly reduce performance. The objective of the High Stability Engine Control (HISTEC) program is to design, develop, and flight demonstrate an advanced, high-stability, integrated engine control system that uses measurement-based, real-time estimates of distortion to enhance engine stability. The resulting distortion tolerant control reduces the required design stall margin, with a corresponding increase in performance and decrease in fuel burn. The HISTEC concept, consisting of a Distortion Estimation System and a Stability Management Control, has been designed and developed. The Distortion Estimation System uses a small number of high-response pressure sensors at the engine face to calculate indicators of the type and extent of distortion in real time. The Stability Management Control, through direct control of the fan and compressor pressure ratio, accommodates the distortion by transiently increasing the amount of stall margin available based on information from the Distortion Estimation System. Simulation studies have shown the HISTEC distortion tolerant control is able to successfully estimate and accommodate time-varying distortion. Currently, hardware and software systems necessary for flight demonstration of the HISTEC concept are being designed and developed. The HISTEC concept will be flight tested in early 1997.

DeLaat, John C.↗

Sensor Requirements and Roadmaps

The chapter starts with a brief overview of the state-of-the-art of the sensing technologies. Principles of detection and the stage of integration in conjunction with the need are discussed. Based on the projected sensor requirements to accomplish propulsion systems with distributed active control, the existent gaps and selected types of sensor technologies are addressed, which are foreseen to deliver the required sensitivity, the resolution, the range, and the bandwidth in classes of sensors and which will allow operation under harsh environment conditions. By changing the packaging and/or design of the current sensors, operation environments of 750°C may be possible, which would meet requirements for sensors located towards the engine intake, compressor and in some cases low-pressure turbine. However, the majority of sensors for locations close to the engine combustion chamber or afterburner (with operation temperatures up to 1700°C) do not exist. There is also a need for smart sensors, which would enable future distributed control architecture. In addition a number of sensors, which are of interest for more intelligent gas turbine engines, are being explored or do not yet exist, for example turbine emission species sensors, burning patter factor sensors, fuel property sensors, and exhaust gas composition sensors. Meanwhile, rapid emerging technologies were made available during the three years duration of the Task Group. These include tip clearance measurement technologies such as eddy current, and microwave methods. To meet future sensor requirements, new fabrication and material technologies (MEMS, other), advanced sensing principles (spectroscopy, other), and their potential applications to new sensor types need to be explored. The status of current R&D for new sensors and future expectations are summarized in a comprehensive table. Sensors and associated electronics that have to operate in high temperature are foreseen to be largely available by 2015 (SiC) and 2020 (SiCN). Both of these technologies come with the potential of embedding such high temperature sensors within the structure. The information presented in the chapter represents the state-of-the-art of the sensing technology of the years 2005-2007 to the best knowledge of the authors. The authors are also fully aware of the fact that there may be many ongoing research programs as well as individual research that are not publicly supported and public information is not available. Therefore, the report might miss that section of knowledge. Also, progress in research and development is made every day such that often, the recent information may be fast outdated. The reader should bear in mind these facts.

Ion Stiharu↗

On the Effect of Dust Particles on Global Cloud Condensation Nuclei and Cloud Droplet Number

Aerosol-cloud interaction studies to date consider aerosol with a substantial fraction of soluble material as the sole source of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Emerging evidence suggests that mineral dust can act as good CCN through water adsorption onto the surface of particles. This study provides a first assessment of the contribution of insoluble dust to global CCN and cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC). Simulations are carried out with the NASA Global Modeling Initiative chemical transport model with an online aerosol simulation, considering emissions from fossil fuel, biomass burning, marine, and dust sources. CDNC is calculated online and explicitly considers the competition of soluble and insoluble CCN for water vapor. The predicted annual average contribution of insoluble mineral dust to CCN and CDNC in cloud-forming areas is up to 40 and 23.8%, respectively. Sensitivity tests suggest that uncertainties in dust size distribution and water adsorption parameters modulate the contribution of mineral dust to CDNC by 23 and 56%, respectively. Coating of dust by hygroscopic salts during the atmospheric aging causes a twofold enhancement of the dust contribution to CCN; the aged dust, however, can substantially deplete in-cloud supersaturation during the initial stages of cloud formation and can eventually reduce CDNC. Considering the hydrophilicity from adsorption and hygroscopicity from solute is required to comprehensively capture the dust-warm cloud interactions. The framework presented here addresses this need and can be easily integrated in atmospheric models.

Karydis, V. A.↗

Mean Flow Augmented Acoustics in Rocket Systems

Oscillatory motion in solid rocket motors and liquid engines has long been a subject of concern. Many rockets display violent fluctuations in pressure, velocity, and temperature originating from the complex interactions between the combustion process and gas dynamics. The customary approach to modeling acoustic waves inside a rocket chamber is to apply the classical inhomogeneous wave equation to the combustion gas. The assumption of a linear, non-dissipative wave in a quiescent fluid remains valid while the acoustic amplitudes are small and local gas velocities stay below Mach 0.2. The converging section of a rocket nozzle, where gradients in pressure, density, and velocity become large, is a notable region where this approach is not applicable. The expulsion of unsteady energy through the nozzle of a rocket is identified as the predominate source of acoustic damping for most rocket systems. An accurate model of the acoustic behavior within this region where acoustic modes are influenced by the presence of a steady mean flow is required for reliable stability predictions. Recently, an approach to address nozzle damping with mean flow effects was implemented by French [1]. This new approach extends the work originated by Sigman and Zinn [2] by solving the acoustic velocity potential equation (AVPE) formulated by perturbing the Euler equations [3]. The acoustic velocity potential (psi) describing the acoustic wave motion in the presence of an inhomogeneous steady high-speed flow is defined by, (del squared)(psi) − (lambda/c)(exp 2)(psi) − M(dot)[M(dot)(del)(del(psi))] − 2(lambda(M/c) + (M(dot)del(M))(dot)del(psi)−2(lambda)(psi)[M(dot)del(1/c)]=0 (1) with M as the Mach vector, c as the speed of sound, and lambda as the complex eigenvalue. French apply the finite volume method to solve the steady flow field within the combustion chamber and nozzle with inviscid walls. The complex eigenvalues and eigenvector are determined with the use of the ARPACK eigensolver. The present study employs the COMSOL Multphysics framework to solve the coupled eigenvalue problem using the finite element approach. The study requires one way coupling of the CFD High Mach Number Flow (HMNF) and mathematics module. The HMNF module evaluated the gas flow inside of a solid rocket motor using St. Robert's law modeling solid propellant burn rate, slip boundary conditions, and the supersonic outflow condition. Results from the HMNF model are used by the coefficient form of the mathematics module to determine the eigenvalues of the AVPE. The mathematics model is truncated at the nozzle sonic line, where a zero flux boundary condition is self-satisfying. The remaining boundaries are modeled with a zero flux boundary condition, assuming zero acoustic absorption on all surfaces. Pertinent results from these analyses are the complex valued eigenvalue and eigenvectors. Comparisons are made to the French results to evaluate the modeling approach. A comparison of the French results with that of the present analysis is displayed in figures 1 and 2, respectively. The graphic shows the first tangential eigenvector's real (a) and imaginary (b) values.

Fischbach, Sean R.↗

Solid Rocket Motor Combustion Instability Modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics

Combustion instability modeling of Solid Rocket Motors (SRM) remains a topic of active research. Many rockets display violent fluctuations in pressure, velocity, and temperature originating from the complex interactions between the combustion process, acoustics, and steady-state gas dynamics. Recent advances in defining the energy transport of disturbances within steady flow-fields have been applied by combustion stability modelers to improve the analysis framework. Employing this more accurate global energy balance requires a higher fidelity model of the SRM flow-field and acoustic mode shapes. The current industry standard analysis tool utilizes a one dimensional analysis of the time dependent fluid dynamics along with a quasi-three dimensional propellant grain regression model to determine the SRM ballistics. The code then couples with another application that calculates the eigenvalues of the one dimensional homogenous wave equation. The mean flow parameters and acoustic normal modes are coupled to evaluate the stability theory developed and popularized by Culick. The assumption of a linear, non-dissipative wave in a quiescent fluid remains valid while acoustic amplitudes are small and local gas velocities stay below Mach 0.2. The current study employs the COMSOL Multiphysics finite element framework to model the steady flow-field parameters and acoustic normal modes of a generic SRM. This work builds upon previous efforts to verify the use of the acoustic velocity potential equation (AVPE) laid out by Campos. The acoustic velocity potential (psi) describing the acoustic wave motion in the presence of an inhomogeneous steady high-speed flow is defined by, del squared psi - (lambda/c) squared psi - M x [M x del((del)(psi))] - 2((lambda)(M)/c + M x del(M) x (del)(psi) - 2(lambda)(psi)[M x del(1/c)] = 0. with M as the Mach vector, c as the speed of sound, and λ as the complex eigenvalue. The study requires one way coupling of the CFD High Mach Number Flow (HMNF) and mathematics module. The HMNF module evaluates the gas flow inside of a SRM using St. Robert's law to model the solid propellant burn rate, slip boundary conditions, and the supersonic outflow condition. Results from the HMNF model are verified by comparing the pertinent ballistics parameters with the industry standard code outputs (i.e. pressure drop, axial velocity, exit velocity). These results are then used by the coefficient form of the mathematics module to determine the complex eigenvalues of the AVPE. The mathematics model is truncated at the nozzle sonic line, where a zero flux boundary condition is self-satisfying. The remaining boundaries are modeled with a zero flux boundary condition, assuming zero acoustic absorption on all surfaces. The one way coupled analysis is perform four times utilizing geometries determined through traditional SRM modeling procedures. The results of the steady-state CFD and AVPE analyses are used to calculate the linear acoustic growth rate as is defined by Flandro and Jacob. In order to verify the process implemented within COMSOL we first employ the Culick theory and compare the results with the industry standard. After the process is verified, the Flandro/Jacob energy balance theory is employed and results displayed.

Fischbach, S. R.↗

Solid Rocket Motor Combustion Instability Modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics

Combustion instability modeling of Solid Rocket Motors (SRM) remains a topic of active research. Many rockets display violent fluctuations in pressure, velocity, and temperature originating from the complex interactions between the combustion process, acoustics, and steady-state gas dynamics. Recent advances in defining the energy transport of disturbances within steady flow-fields have been applied by combustion stability modelers to improve the analysis framework [1, 2, 3]. Employing this more accurate global energy balance requires a higher fidelity model of the SRM flow-field and acoustic mode shapes. The current industry standard analysis tool utilizes a one dimensional analysis of the time dependent fluid dynamics along with a quasi-three dimensional propellant grain regression model to determine the SRM ballistics. The code then couples with another application that calculates the eigenvalues of the one dimensional homogenous wave equation. The mean flow parameters and acoustic normal modes are coupled to evaluate the stability theory developed and popularized by Culick [4, 5]. The assumption of a linear, non-dissipative wave in a quiescent fluid remains valid while acoustic amplitudes are small and local gas velocities stay below Mach 0.2. The current study employs the COMSOL multiphysics finite element framework to model the steady flow-field parameters and acoustic normal modes of a generic SRM. The study requires one way coupling of the CFD High Mach Number Flow (HMNF) and mathematics module. The HMNF module evaluates the gas flow inside of a SRM using St. Robert's law to model the solid propellant burn rate, no slip boundary conditions, and the hybrid outflow condition. Results from the HMNF model are verified by comparing the pertinent ballistics parameters with the industry standard code outputs (i.e. pressure drop, thrust, ect.). These results are then used by the coefficient form of the mathematics module to determine the complex eigenvalues of the Acoustic Velocity Potential Equation (AVPE). The mathematics model is truncated at the nozzle sonic line, where a zero flux boundary condition is self-satisfying. The remaining boundaries are modeled with a zero flux boundary condition, assuming zero acoustic absorption on all surfaces. The results of the steady-state CFD and AVPE analyses are used to calculate the linear acoustic growth rate as is defined by Flandro and Jacob [2, 3]. In order to verify the process implemented within COMSOL we first employ the Culick theory and compare the results with the industry standard. After the process is verified, the Flandro/Jacob energy balance theory is employed and results displayed.

Fischbach, Sean R.↗

Reconciliation of asynchronous satellite-based $\mathrm{NO_2}$ and $\mathrm{XCO_2}$ enhancements with mesoscale modeling over two urban landscapes

Fossil fuel carbon dioxide (CO 2ff ), the main driver of global warming and climate change, is often co-emitted with nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and precursors to ground-level ozone from anthropogenic sources like power plants or vehicles. In urban and suburban areas, satellite-based NO 2 can be used as a proxy to track the emissions of CO 2ff . Because of NO 2 ’s shorter lifetime, urban NO 2 plumes are more distinguishable from backgrounds and more sensitive to variations in emissions. However, the combination of these two gases is limited by the asynchrony among NO 2 and CO 2 monitoring satellites. We used CO 2ff simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) model to reconcile the tropospheric NO 2 vertical column density (VCD) from the Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) and column-averaged dry-air mole fractions of carbon dioxide enhancements (ΔXCO 2 ) from Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 (OCO-3) Snapshot Area Maps (SAMs) over a multicity area, Washington D.C.-Baltimore (DC-Balt), and a basin city, Mexico City. NO 2 /CO 2ff ratios over DC-Balt are smaller than Mexico City, indicative of stricter emission restrictions, a more combustion-efficient vehicle fleet, and higher combustion efficiency due to lower altitude in DC-Balt. For single-track cases, the spatial correlations between NO 2 and ΔXCO 2 over Mexico City are stronger than DC-Balt because the NO 2 and CO 2 are mostly trapped in the valley of Mexico City, while DC-Balt is severely affected by distant sources (i.e., US East Coast cities). Using multi-track averaging, spatial correlation coefficients increase with the number of days used for averaging. The correlations reached a maximum when averaging >12 continuous images for DC-Balt and > 10 continuous images for Mexico City. This finding indicates that multi-track averaging using modeled CO 2ff as a proxy is helpful to filter the noise in single-track images, to cancel the interference from distant sources, and to magnify correlations between NO 2 and CO 2ff . Mexico City showed stronger spatial correlations but weaker temporal correlations than DC-Balt due to biomass burning hot spots and large transport errors caused by the trapping effects of the surrounding mountains. Tracking the 20-day moving average of CO 2ff emissions using TROPOMI NO 2 seems technically feasible, considering the relationship between correlation coefficients and the number of available satellite images.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

Simulation and Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes modeling of a three-component Rayleigh-Taylor mixing problem with thermonuclear burn

Rayleigh-Taylor mixing in the presence of a third component with intermediate density is investigated through three-dimensional large-eddy simulation (LES) with a high-order compact finite-difference code. Two configurations are considered: (1) a symmetric configuration in which the Atwood number between the heavy and intermediate components matches the Atwood number between the intermediate and light components and (2) an asymmetric configuration in which the Atwood number between the heavy and intermediate components is an order of magnitude greater than the Atwood number between the intermediate and light components. Mass fraction covariances are extracted, and proposed Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) closures for density-specific-volume and density-mass-fraction covariances are evaluated in an a priori fashion. Additionally, a multicomponent extension of the k - Φ - L - a - V RANS model [Morgan, Phys. Rev. E 104, 015107 (2021)] is presented which includes model equations for the upper-triangular elements of the mass fraction covariance matrix. This model, referred to as the k - Φ - L - a - C model, is compared against results from LES and against other RANS models. Profiles of average mass fraction, mass-fraction covariance, and density-specific-volume covariance obtained with the k - Φ - L - a - C model are found to agree well with LES data. Finally, the impact of three-component turbulent mixing on average reaction rate is investigated in both premixed and nonpremixed cases by heating the mixing layer and allowing it to undergo thermonuclear (TN) burn. A closure model for average reaction rate is proposed for use with the k - Φ - L - a - C model, and when this model is applied, improved agreement is obtained between LES and RANS in total TN neutron production.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

Mach 2 combustion characteristics of hydrogen/hydrocarbon fuel mixtures

The combustion of H2/CH4 and H2/C2H4 mixtures containing 10 to 70 vol pct hydrocarbon at combustor inlet Mach number 2 and temperatures 2000 to 4000 R is investigated experimentally, applying direct-connect test hardware and techniques similar to those described by Diskin and Northam (1987) in the facilities of the NASA Langley Hypersonic Propulsion Branch. The experimental setup, procedures, and data-reduction methods are described; and the results are presented in extensive tables and graphs and characterized in detail. Fuel type and mixture are found to have little effect on the wall heating rate measured near the combustor exit, but H2/C2H4 is shown to burn much more efficiently than H2/CH4, with no pilot-off blowout equivalence ratios greater than 0.5. It is suggested that H2/hydrocarbon mixtures are feasible fuels (at least in terms of combustion efficiency) for scramjet SSTO vehicles operating at freestream Mach numbers above 4.

Diskin, Glenn S.↗

Flight and Preflight Tests of a Ram Jet Burning Magnesium Slurry Fuel and Utilizing a Solid-propellant Gas Generator for Fuel Expulsion

Data obtained from the first flight test of a ram jet utilizing a magnesium slurry fuel are presented. The ram jet accelerated from a Mach number of 1.75 to a Mach number of 3.48 in 15.5 seconds. During this period a maximum values of air specific impulse and gross thrust coefficient were calculated to be 151 seconds and 0.658, respectively. The rocket gas generator used as a fuel-pumping system operated successfully.

Bartlett, Walter, A , jr↗

Major Influence of Tropical Volcanic Eruptions on the Stratospheric Aerosol Layer During the Last Decade

The variability of stratospheric aerosol loading between 1985 and 2010 is explored with measurements from SAGE II, CALIPSO, GOMOS/ENVISAT, and OSIRIS/Odin space-based instruments. We find that, following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, stratospheric aerosol levels increased by as much as two orders of magnitude and only reached background levels between 1998 and 2002. From 2002 onwards, a systematic increase has been reported by a number of investigators. Recently, the trend, based on ground-based lidar measurements, has been tentatively attributed to an increase of SO2 entering the stratosphere associated with coal burning in Southeast Asia. However, we demonstrate with these satellite measurements that the observed trend is mainly driven by a series of moderate but increasingly intense volcanic eruptions primarily at tropical latitudes. These events injected sulfur directly to altitudes between 18 and 20 km. The resulting aerosol particles are slowly lofted into the middle stratosphere by the Brewer-Dobson circulation and are eventually transported to higher latitudes.

Vernier, Jean-Paul↗

Estimation of coarse dead wood stocks in intact and degraded forests in the Brazilian Amazon using airborne lidar

Coarse dead wood is an important component of forest carbon stocks, but it is rarely measured in Amazon forests and is typically excluded from regional forest carbon budgets. Our study is based on line intercept sampling for fallen coarse dead wood conducted along 103 transects with a total length of 48 km matched with forest inventory plots where standing coarse dead wood was measured in the footprints of larger areas of airborne lidar acquisitions. We developed models to relate lidar metrics and Landsat time series variables to coarse dead wood stocks for intact, logged, burned, or logged and burned forests. Canopy characteristics such as gap area produced significant individual relations for logged forests. For total fallen plus standing coarse dead wood (hereafter defined as total coarse dead wood), the relative root mean square error for models with only lidar metrics ranged from 33 % in logged forest to up to 36 % in burned forests. The addition of historical information improved model performance slightly for intact forests (31 % against 35 % relative root mean square error), not justifying the use of a number of disturbance events from historical satellite images (Landsat) with airborne lidar data. Lidar-derived estimates of total coarse dead wood compared favorably with independent ground-based sampling for areas up to several hundred hectares. The relations found between total coarse dead wood and variables quantifying forest structure derived from airborne lidar highlight the opportunity to quantify this important but rarely measured component of forest carbon over large areas in tropical forests.

Brazilian Amazon↗