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NASA NTRS2000

Planet Formation and the Characteristics of Extrasolar Planets

An overview of current theories of planetary growth, emphasizing the formation of extrasolar planets, is presented. Models of planet formation are based upon observations of the Solar System, extrasolar planets, and young stars and their environments. Terrestrial planets are believed to grow via pairwise accretion until the spacing of planetary orbits becomes large enough that the configuration is stable for the age of the system. Giant planets begin their growth like terrestrial planets, but if they become massive enough before the protoplanetary disk dissipates, then they are able to accumulate substantial amounts of gas. These models predict that rocky planets should form in orbit about most single stars. It is uncertain whether or not gas giant planet formation is common, because most protoplanetary disks may dissipate before solid planetary cores can grow large enough to gravitationally trap substantial quantities of gas. A potential hazard to planetary systems is radial decay of planetary orbits resulting from interactions with material within the disk. Planets more massive than Earth have the potential to decay the fastest, and may be able to sweep up smaller planets in their path. The implications of the giant planets found in recent radial velocity searches for the abundances of habitable planets are discussed.

Lissauer, Jack J.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Formation and Detection of Planetary Systems

Modern theories of star and planet formation and of the orbital stability of planetary systems are described and used to discuss possible characteristics of undiscovered planetary systems. The most detailed models of planetary growth are based upon observations of planets and smaller bodies within our own Solar System and of young stars and their environments. Terrestrial planets are believed to grow via pairwise accretion until the spacing of planetary orbits becomes large enough that the configuration is stable for the age of the system. Giant planets begin their growth as do terrestrial planets, but they become massive enough that they are able to accumulate substantial amounts of gas before the protoplanetary disk dissipates. These models predict that rocky planets should form in orbit about most single stars. It is uncertain whether or not gas giant planet formation is common, because most protoplanetary disks may dissipate before solid planetary cores can grow large enough to gravitationally trap substantial quantities of gas. A potential hazard to planetary systems is radial decay of planetary orbits resulting from interactions with material within the disk. Planets more massive than Earth have the potential to decay the fastest, and may be able to sweep up smaller planets in their path. The implications of the giant planets found in recent radial velocity searches for the abundances of habitable planets are discussed, and the methods that are being used and planned for detecting and characterizing extrasolar planets are reviewed.

Lissauer, Jack J.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Planet Formation

Lissauer, Jack J.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Trends in Spitzer Secondary Eclipses

It is well established that the magnitude of the incident stellar flux is the single most important factor in determining the day–night temperature gradients and atmospheric chemistries of short-period gas giant planets. However, it is likely that other factors, such as planet-to-planet variations in atmospheric metallicity, C/O ratio, and cloud properties, also contribute to the observed diversity of infrared spectra for this population of planets. In this study, we present new 3.6 and 4.5 μm secondary eclipse measurements for five transiting gas giant planets: HAT-P-5b, HAT-P-38b, WASP-7b, WASP-72b, and WASP-127b. We detect eclipses in at least one bandpass for all five planets and confirm circular orbits for all planets except WASP-7b, which shows evidence for a nonzero eccentricity. Building on the work of Garhart et al., we place these new planets into a broader context by comparing them with the sample of all planets with measured Spitzer secondary eclipses. We find that incident flux is the single most important factor for determining the atmospheric chemistry and circulation patterns of short-period gas giant planets. Although we might also expect surface gravity and host star metallicity to play a secondary role, we find no evidence for correlations with either of these two variables.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS2012

Masses, Radii, and Cloud Properties of the HR 8799 Planets

The near-infrared colors of the planets directly imaged around the A star HR 8799 are much redder than most field brown dwarfs of the same effective temperature. Previous theoretical studies of these objects have compared the photometric and limited spectral data of the planets to the predictions of various atmosphere and evolution models and concluded that the atmospheres of planets b, c, and d are unusually cloudy or have unusual cloud properties. Most studies have also found that the inferred radii of some or all of the planets disagree with expectations of standard giant planet evolution models. Here we compare the available data to the predictions of our own set of atmospheric and evolution models that have been extensively tested against field L and T dwarfs, including the reddest L dwarfs. Unlike almost all previous studies we specify mutually self-consistent choices for effective temperature, gravity, cloud properties, and planetary radius. This procedure yields plausible and self-consistent values for the masses, effective temperatures, and cloud properties of all three planets. We find that the cloud properties of the HR 8799 planets are in fact not unusual but rather follow previously recognized trends including a gravity dependence on the temperature of the L to T spectral transition, some reasons for which we discuss. We find that the inferred mass of planet b is highly sensitive to the H and K band spectrum. Solutions for planets c and particularly d are less certain but are consistent with the generally accepted constraints on the age of the primary star and orbital dynamics. We also confirm that as for L and T dwarfs and solar system giant planets, non-equilibrium chemistry driven by atmospheric mixing is also important for these objects. Given the preponderance of data suggesting that the L to T spectral type transition is gravity dependent, we present a new evolution calculation that predicts cooling tracks on the near-infrared color-magnitude diagram. Finally we argue that the range of uncertainty conventionally quoted for the bolometric luminosity of all three planets is too small.

Marley, Mark S.↗

NASA NTRS1976

The chemistry of planetary atmospheres

Present knowledge concerning the chemistry of planetary atmospheres is reviewed along with the theories which attempt to explain observational data. The known gross atmospheric compositions of the terrestrial and giant planets are listed, differences between the atmospheres of earth and Venus are discussed, and the atmospheres of the giant planets are described. The origin and evolution of the atmospheres of earth, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are outlined, and chemical processes in the atmospheres are examined, particularly cloud formation. The question of organic synthesis and evolution in the reducing atmospheres of the giant planets is considered. It is noted that laboratory work on the individual chemical processes and reactions involved in the evolution of organic compounds in planetary atmospheres, comets, and interstellar space points to the inevitability of organic-compound synthesis in all these situations and to the pervasiveness of organic chemistry throughout the universe.

Huntress, W. T., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS2012

Scientific Value of a Saturn Atmospheric Probe Mission

Atmospheric entry probe mISSions to the giant planets can uniquely discriminate between competing theories of solar system formation and the origin and evolution of the giant planets and their atmospheres. This provides for important comparative studies of the gas and ice giants, and to provide a laboratory for studying the atmospheric chemistries, dynamics, and interiors of all the planets including Earth. The giant planets also represent a valuable link to extrasolar planetary systems. As outlined in the recent Planetary Decadal Survey, a Saturn Probe mission - with a shallow probe - ranks as a high priority for a New Frontiers class mission [1].

Simon-Miller, A. A.↗

NASA NTRS2024

Origins of Super Jupiters: TOI-2145b has a Moderately Eccentric and Nearly Aligned Orbit

Super Jupiters are giant planets with several Jupiter masses. It remains an open question whether these planets originate with such high masses or grow through collisions. Previous work demonstrates that warm super Jupiters tend to have more eccentric orbits compared to regular-mass warm Jupiters. This correlation between mass and eccentricity may indicate that planet–planet interactions significantly influence the warm giant planet demographics. Here, we conducted a detailed characterization of a warm super Jupiter, TOI-2145b. This analysis utilized previous observations from Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite and Keck/High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer, enhanced by new Rossiter–McLaughlin effect data from the NEID spectrometer on the 3.5 m WIYN Telescope. TOI-2145b is a 5.68 +0.37 −0.34 M Jup MJup planet on a moderate eccentricity (e = 0.214 +0.014 −0.014 ), 10.26 day orbit, orbiting an evolved A-star. We constrain the projected stellar obliquity to be λ = 6.8 +2.9 −3.8 ° from two NEID observations. Our N-body simulations suggest that the formation of super Jupiter TOI-2145b could involve either of two scenarios: a high initial mass or growth via collisions. On a population level, however, the collision scenario can better describe the mass–eccentricity distribution of observed warm Jupiters.

Jiayin Dong↗

NASA NTRS2005

Comet Dust: The Story of Planet Formation as Told by the Tiniest of Particles

Our planetary system formed out of a gas-rich disk-shaped nebula with the early Sun at its center. Many small icy bodies were consumed by the formation of the giant planets. However, many km-size icy bodies were tossed out of the giant-planet region to the cold, distant reaches of our solar system. Comets remained in their places of cold storage until perturbed into orbits that carry them into the inner solar system where they pass relatively close to the Sun. Comets are warmed by the Sun and shed material from their outer layers. The ices and gases shed by comets reveal simple and complex organic molecules were present at the time and in the region of the formation of the giant planets. Where the Earth was forming was too hot and had too intense sunlight for many of these ices and molecules to survive. The dust shed by comets tells us that some stardust survived unaltered but much of the dust was heated and crystallized before becoming part of the comet. Therefore, comet dust grains tell of large radial migrations from the cold outer reaches near Neptune into the hot regions near the forming Sun, and then back out to the cold regions where icy comets were accreting and forming. On 2005 July 4, the NASA Deep Impact Mission hit a comet and ejected primitive materials fiom its interior. These materials were not released into the comet s coma during normal activity. Despite the many passages of this comet close to the Sun, these primitive volatile gases and dust grains survived in its interior. Comet dust grains show that cold and hot materials were mixed into the same tiny particle very early in the formation of the solar system, and these aggregate dust grains never saw high temperatures again. The survival of primitive materials in comet nuclei suggests comets could have delivered organic molecules and primitive dust grains to early Earth.

Wooden, D. H.↗

NASA NTRS2011

A Low Mass for Mars from Jupiter's Early Gas-Driven Migration

Jupiter and Saturn formed in a few million years from a gas-dominated protoplanetary disk, and were susceptible to gas-driven migration of their orbits on timescales of only approximately 100,000 years. Hydrodynamic simulations show that these giant planets can undergo a two-stage, inward-then-outward, migration. The terrestrial planets finished accreting much later and their characteristics, including Mars' small mass, are best reproduced by starting from a planetesimal disk with an outer edge at about one astronomical unit from the Sun (1 AU is the Earth-Sun distance). Here we report simulations of the early Solar System that show how the inward migration of Jupiter to 1.5 AU, and its subsequent outward migration, lead to a planetesimal disk truncated at 1 AU; the terrestrial planets then form from this disk over the next 30-50 million years, with an Earth/Mars mass ratio consistent with observations. Scattering by Jupiter initially empties but then repopulates the asteroid belt, with inner-belt bodies originating between 1 and 3 AU and outer-belt bodies originating between and beyond the giant planets. This explains the significant compositional differences across the asteroid belt. The key aspect missing from previous models of terrestrial planet formation is the substantial radial migration of the giant planets, which suggests that their behaviour is more similar to that inferred for extrasolar planets than previously thought.

Walsh, Kevin J.↗

DOE OSTI2020

The Dark Planets of the WASP-47 Planetary System

Exoplanet discoveries have demonstrated a vast range of planetary system architectures. The demographic of compact planetary systems are especially interesting from the perspective of planetary formation and the evolution of orbital dynamics. Another interesting demographic is that of giant planets in eccentric orbits, since these planets have likely had a dynamical history involving planet–planet scattering events. The WASP-47 system is particularly fascinating since it combines these two demographics, having both compact planetary orbits and a giant planet on an eccentric orbit within the system the habitable zone. Here we provide an analysis of the WASP-47 system from the perspective of atmospheric detection and characterization. We discuss the system architecture and the potential for additional long-period planets. We simulate expected phase variations as a function of planet orbital phase for the system due to the combined effect of the planets. We present an analysis of precision photometry of WASP-47 from the K2 mission, phased on each of the planets. The analysis rules out the detection of phase signatures for the two inner-most planets, enabling constraints upon their albedos and atmospheric properties. Our study concludes that WASP-47b is an example of a “dark” planet with a tentative geometric albedo of 0.016 and a 1σ upper limit of 0.17. The WASP-47e data are consistent with a broad range of albedos, but also show early evidence of having a relatively low albedo. The growing number of dark, short-period giant planets provide the framework of an ideal sample for studying low albedo dependence on atmospheric composition.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

NASA NTRS1998

Formation of Jupiter and Saturn

An overview of current theories of the formation of our Solar System, with emphasis on giant planets, is presented. The most detailed models are based upon observations of planets and smaller bodies within our own Solar System and of young stars and their environments. Terrestrial planets are believed to grow via pairwise accretion until the spacing of planetary orbits becomes large enough that the configuration is stable for the age of the system. Giant planets begin their growth as do terrestrial planets, but they become massive enough that they are able to accumulate substantial amounts of gas before the protoplanetary disk dissipates. Larger disk mass allows for faster growth of solid planetary bodies. The ability of a solid planet to trap gas from the protoplanetary disk increases rapidly as its mass increases (because the depth of its gravitational potential well increases), but decreases as the planetesimal accretion rate is increased (as it becomes hotter). The net effect of increasing disk mass is that gas giant planets form more rapidly, but with larger core masses. Observations of circumstellar disks suggest an upper bound on the time available prior to dissipation of the gas, and planetary models place upper limits on core sizes. Together, these constraints suggest that Jupiter and Saturn formed in 1-10 million years, and the density of solids in the region of their formation was a few times as large as the lower bound provided by the traditional minimum mass nebula.

Lissauer, Jack J.↗

NASA NTRS1998

Formation of Jupiter and Saturn

An overview of current theories of the formation of our Solar System, with emphasis on giant planets, is presented. The most detailed models are based upon observations of planets and smaller bodies within our own Solar System and of young stars and their environments. Terrestrial planets are believed to grow via pairwise accretion until the spacing of planetary orbits becomes large enough that the configuration is stable for the age of the system. Giant planets begin their growth as do terrestrial planets, but they become massive enough that they are able to accumulate substantial amounts of gas before the protoplanetary disk dissipates. Larger disk mass allows for faster growth of solid planetary bodies. The ability of a solid planet to trap gas from the protoplanetary disk increases rapidly as its mass increases (because the depth of its gravitational potential well increases), but decreases as the planetesimal accretion rate is increased (as it becomes hotter). The net effect of increasing disk mass is that gas giant planets form more rapidly, but with larger core masses. Observations of circumstellar disks suggest an upper bound on the time available prior to dissipation of the gas, and planetary models place upper limits on core sizes. Together, these constraints suggest that Jupiter and Saturn formed in 1 - 10 million years, and the density of solids in the region of their formation was a few times as large as the lower bound provided by the traditional minimum mass nebula.

Lissauer, Jack J.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Delivery of Volatiles to Habitable Planets in Extrasolar Planetary Systems

The Earth can support life because: (1) its orbit lies in the Sun's habitable zone', and (2) it contains enough volatile material (e.g. water and organics) for life to flourish. However, it seems likely that the Earth was drier when it formed because it accreted in a part of the Sun's protoplanetary nebula that was too hot for volatiles to condense. If this is correct, water and organics must have been delivered to the habitable zone, after dissipation of the solar nebula, from a 'wet zone' in the asteroid belt or the outer solar system, where the nebula was cool enough for volatiles to condense. Material from the wet zone would have been delivered to the Earth by Jupiter and Saturn. Gravitational perturbations from these giant planets made much of the wet zone unstable, scattering volatile-rich planetesimals and protoplanets across the Solar System. Some of these objects ultimately collided with the inner Planets which themselves lie in a stable part of the Solar System. Giant planets are now being discovered orbiting other sunlike stars. To date, these planets have orbits and masses very different from Jupiter and Saturn, such that few if any of these systems is likely to have terrestrial planets in the star's habitable zone. However, new discoveries are anticipated due to improved detector sensitivity and the increase in the timespan of observations. Here we present numerical experiments examining the range of giant-planet characteristics that: (1) allow stable terrestrial Planets to exist in a star's habitable zone, and (2) make a large part of the star's wet zone weakly unstable, thus delivering volatiles to the terrestrial planets over an extended period of time after the dissipation of the solar nebula.

Chambers, John E.↗

NASA NTRS1988

SIRTF and solar system studies

Current objectives of infrared studies of solar system bodies are reviewed, and the contributions in this area that SIRTF can make are addressed. Primordial issues, the evolution of giant planet atmospheres and satellites, seasonal processes in giant planet atmospheres and satellites, the comets, the asteroids, interplanetary matter, and the detection of extrasolar planetary systems are considered. The role of SIRTF in the Comet Rendezvous Asteroids Flyby (CRAF) mission is examined.

Cruikshank, Dale P.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Imaging Transitional Disks with TMT: Lessons Learned from the SEEDS Survey

TMT studies of the early phases of giant planet formation will build on studies carried out in this decade using 8-meter class telescopes. One such study is the Strategic Exploration of Exoplanets and Disks with Subaru transitional disk survey. We have found a wealth of indirect signatures of giant planet presence, including spiral arms, pericenter offsets of the outer disk from the star, and changes in disk color at the inner edge of the outer disk in intermediate-mass PMS star disks. T Tauri star transitional disks are less flamboyant, but are also dynamically colder: any spiral arms in these diskswill be more tightly wound. Imaging such features at the distance of the nearest star-forming regions requires higher angular resolution than achieved with HiCIAO+ AO188. Imaging such disks with extreme AO systems requires use of laser guide stars, and are infeasible with the extreme AO systems currently commissioning on 8-meter class telescopes. Similarly, the JWST and AFTAWFIRST coronagraphs being considered have inner working angles 0.2, and will occult the inner 28 atomic units of systems at d140pc, a region where both high-contrast imagery and ALMA data indicate that giant planets are located in transitional disks. However, studies of transitional disks associated with solar-mass stars and their planet complement are feasible with TMT using NFIRAOS.

star-forming regions↗

NASA NTRS1991

Properties of planetary fluids at high pressures and temperatures

Observational data obtained by the Voyager space probes to the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have provided valuable information, which is used to refine the picture of the nature of the interiors of these planets. Major results from the Voyager missions include observations of substantial magnetic fields and improved models of internal density distributions. The goal is to obtain equations of state and electrical conductivity data for planetary gases (H2 and He) and the ices (H2O, CH4, and NH3, and their mixtures), which are considered to be the major constituents of the giant planets. These data are needed to test theoretical data bases used to construct models of the chemical composition of planetary interiors, models which are consistent with observables such as mass, diameter, gravitational moments, rotation rate, and magnetic field. The 100 GPa (1 Mbar) pressures and several 1000 K temperatures in the giant planets can be achieved in the lab by the shock compression of liquid specimens. Results are briefly examined.

Nellis, W. J.↗

NASA NTRS2001

Jupiter: Atmospheric Sounding and Sensing of the Interior (JASSI)

The formation of the giant planets is one of the most fundamental questions in solar system exploration. Understanding the process that led to the creation of Jupiter is essential to understanding the nature of the primordial solar nebula, and the formation of our solar system and others currently being discovered. Data from Galileo combined with HST and Ulysses results validated our basic understanding of Jupiter as a giant planet whose gaseous envelope consists of solar nebula gas enriched in elements heavier than He by in falling icy planetesimals. However, the current Galileo Probe data set does not itself allow firm conclusions about the original planetesimal composition or the process of giant planet formation - we crucially need the O and N abundances that Galileo could not determine. We propose a new and simple concept capable of determining these abundance in Jupiter plus substantial gravity science. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Bolton, S. J.↗