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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 235 records · Page 13
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Measuring Multicomponent Adsorption of Tracer Gases on Natural Zeolites

A natural clinoptilolite sample near the Nevada National Security Site was obtained to study adsorption and retardation on gas transport. Of interest is understanding the competition for adsorption sites that may reduce tracer gas adsorption relative to single-component measurements, which may be affected by the multi-scale pore structure of clinoptilolite. Clinoptilolite has three distinct domains of pore size distributions ranging from nanometers to micrometers: micropores with 0.4–0.7 nm diameters, measured on powders by CO2 adsorption at 273 K, representing the zeolite cages; mesopores with 4–200 nm diameters, observed using liquid nitrogen adsorption at 77 K; and macropores with 300–1000 nm diameters, measured by mercury injection on rock chips (~ 100 mesh), likely representing the microfractures. These pore size distributions are consistent with X-ray computed tomography (CT) and focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM) images, which are used to construct the three-dimensional (3D) pore network to be used in future gas transport modeling. To quantify tracer gas adsorption in this multi-scale pore structure and multicomponent gas species environment, natural zeolite samples initially in equilibrium in air were exposed to a mixture of tracer gases. As the tracer gases diffuse and adsorb in the sample, the remaining tracer gases outside the sample fractionate. Using a quadrupole mass spectrometer to quantify this fractionation, the degree of adsorption of tracer gases in the multicomponent gas environment and multi-scale pore structure is assessed. The major finding is that Kr reaches equilibrium much faster than Xe in the presence of ambient air, which leads to more Kr uptake than Xe over limited exposure periods. When the clinoptilolite chips were exposed to humid air, the adsorption capability decreases significantly for both Xe and Kr with relative humidity (RH) as low as 3%. Both Xe and Kr reaches equilibrium faster at higher RH. The different, unexpected, adsorption behavior for Xe and Kr is due to their kinetic diameters similar to the micropores in clinoptilolite which makes it harder for Xe to access compared to Kr.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Atom Probe characterization of neutron irradiated commercial ZIRLO® and AXIOM X2® alloys

As part of the Mechanistic Understanding of ZIrconium Corrosion (MUZIC) program, this team has been instrumental to obtain EPRI and Westinghouse sponsorships to prepare the neutron irradiated ZIRLO® and X2® from Vogtle nuclear power plant and ship them from Studsvik’s (Sweden) hot cells to Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to be part of the NSUF library. The uniqueness of these sets of neutron irradiated alloys is that they are at the same two extremes of the fuel cycles, allowing us to study the microchemistry evolution as a function of irradiation doses, exposure time and solute content. Advanced commercial Zirconium-Niobium (Zr-Nb) alloys, such as ZIRLO® and AXIOM®, have been developed by Westinghouse to enhance the corrosion resistance of fuel cladding material for longer service time. This study specifically aims at investigating the neutron irradiation induced Nb redistribution in AXIOM® X2® to understand the effect of neutron irradiation induced microchemistry changes and the irradiation enhanced corrosion resistance observed in ZrNb alloys. The detailed sample information on chemical composition and irradiation is given in shown in Table 1a and 1b respectively. To study the neutron IIP/nanoclusters and Nb concentration in the solid solution, atom probe tomography (APT) is the primary tool to obtain reliable chemical information. APT specimens were prepared in shielded focused ion beam (FIB) at the Irradiated Materials Characterization Laboratory (IMCL) at INL followed by APT analysis at CAES facility using LEAP 4000XR

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

3013 Baseline Inner Container Report: Description, Imaging, and Analysis

This report presents consolidated findings from three microscopy studies of baseline Bagless Transfer Containers (BTCs), which are the inner containers used in DOE Standard 3013-compliant plutonium storage packages. The studies were conducted by Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL), and DNV, a subcontractor specializing in corrosion science. The baseline BTCs examined had not been exposed to corrosive environments, serving as control samples for comparison with destructively examined (DE) containers. Additionally, the Background section provides an overview of the BTC design, including manufacturing methods, material properties, and container configurations that may influence corrosion behavior. The primary objective of the LANL and SRNL studies was to establish reference characteristics of BTCs to distinguish manufacturing artifacts from corrosion-induced features observed in DE containers. Both laboratories used advanced microscopy techniques, including Wide Area Microscopy (WAMS), Laser Confocal Microscopy (LCM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Focused Ion Beam (FIB), to reveal that most surface anomalies were shallow and attributable to flow-forming processes, not corrosion. Subsurface impurities, identified as non-metallic inclusions, were also observed. DNV’s investigation focused on characterizing the mechanical and chemical properties of the BTC material to support crack growth modeling. Their findings indicate higher hardness and strength but reduced ductility—consistent with flow-formed 304L stainless steel and a higher-than-expected martensite content, in contrast to manufacturer claims. Ongoing and future studies, including Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD), aim to further understand the microstructural factors influencing crack initiation and propagation. The combined studies provide a crucial baseline for distinguishing corrosion effects in DE containers, contributing to the safe and reliable long-term storage of plutonium-bearing materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Wafer-Free Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells (CRADA Final Report)

This CRADA project, based on the DOE Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) Solar Prize Voucher program, helped Leap Photovoltaics to develop methodologies to immobilize Si particles by permanently attaching them to an Al-coated substrate and thereby forming carrier-selective electrical contacts to the Si particles. The bigger goal was to help Leap Photovoltaics develop these immobilized and contacted particle arrays into relatively efficient, inexpensive, and industrially relevant solar cells. By using Si particles instead of wafers in a solar cell absorber layer, one can avoid costs associated with growing monocrystalline Si ingots, then diamond-sawing them into wafers, then processing wafers into cells – a mainstream practice in today's high-efficiency Si cell and module technology. Monocrystalline or polycrystalline Si particles can be obtained in various ways: for example, Si kerf from wafer sawing is monocrystalline; recycled Si cell wafers can be ball-milled into particles; particles can be grown using various gas-phase techniques (mostly from SiH4). These Si particles can be assembled onto a substrate and serve as an absorber layer for the solar cell, absorbing photons to generate photocarriers. The challenge with this technique is to collect photocarriers from individual Si particles, with separation of photogenerated electrons to the negative cell’s electrode and positive photogenerated holes to the positive electrode. Therefore, each particle must have two isolated, carrier-selective contacts: one for electrons and one for holes. Plus, particles need to be immobilized onto a solid substrate. The goal of this work was focused on the immobilization of Si particles and creating hole-selective contact to them at the same time, using industrially relevant Si photovoltaic (PV) cell technology: screen printing of Al back-surface field electrodes. This is used in the mainstream Propane Education and Research Council (PERC) technology for hole-collecting contacts at the back of the cell. The work performed at NREL consisted of screen printing of Al metal paste on substrates, spreading Si particles onto it, and thermally processing the structures to form hole-collecting contacts. The final structures were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after focused ion beam (FIB) cross-sectioning and polishing. The work was done jointly by NREL staff and Leap Photovoltaics (Leap PV) employees stationed at NREL. The samples were then taken to Leap PV for further processing. Training the Leap PV employee on various NREL techniques (laser cutting, screen printing, thermal processing, characterization) was part of the scope.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

MPEX AI Digital Twins

All magnetically confined plasma fusion power plant concepts (Tokamak, Spherical Tokamak, Stellarator, Mirror, ...) must exhaust the heat and plasma from the core confinement region to the material walls. The primary channel for this exhaust is through a plasma divertor which directs plasma along open magnetic field lines to a material target. The Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (MPEX) illustrated in Figure 1, is a high-power, steady-state linear plasma device designed to produce the plasma material interaction (PMI) conditions of the divertor of future magnetic confinement fusion power plants: energy flux 20MW/m 2 , ion fluence 1031/m 2 , pulse duration 106 sec. These goals of plasma exposure in MPEX are well beyond those achieved in magnetic fusion experimental devices. Successfully achieving these high power steady state conditions for long pulses requires operational control of the heating and particle sources and the plasma flux to the walls and target. The MPEX AI Hot Spot Controller, proposed in this project, will help achieve the operational milestones of MPEX. The MPEX device will begin commissioning at the end of FY26. A smaller proto-MPEX was operated for 14,666 plasma discharges and will resume operation in September of 2025 as proto-MPEX-lite, with reduced capability, to test a new window for the Helicon plasma source. The proto-MPEX data has undergone surrogate modeling with machine learning methods (R. Archibald, 2022 IEEE International Conference on Big Data). This proto-MPEX data will be used to begin development of the AI digital twins described in this white paper. The scientific mission of MPEX is to qualify materials of different composition for use in the high energy and plasma flux conditions of a fusion power plant. The materials exposed in MPEX will in some cases be exposed to high neutron fluxes at other ORNL facilities to measure the changes to their PMI properties. The targets exposed in MPEX will be transported under vacuum to a Surface Analysis Station (SAS). The SAS will be equipped with the following diagnostics: Focused Ion Beam (FIB) for trench milling, 100-400 angstrom resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM), surface mapping x-ray spectrometer, high resolution camera, and a future upgrade to a laser induced breakdown spectroscopy quadruple mass spectrometer (LIBS-QMS). The MPEX experiments will generate diverse pre- and post-exposure measurement data of detailed material properties down to the crystal grain level in 3D for post-exposure assessment of PMI damage (e.g. cracking, melting, erosion and redeposition of the material). Physics models for the PMI, and how the material composition and manufacturing impact its performance under high energy plasma exposure, need to be validated with MPEX data to guide the selection of new candidate materials. Our vision for the MPEX AI Digital Twins project is to supply experimental and physics model simulation data to train Artificial Intelligence (AI) models for data processing, analysis, operational control, PMI and materials simulation to maximize the scientific output of the MPEX device. Ultimately, an AI digital twin of MPEX material assessment metrics for tested and synthetic material types with simulated PMI will be trained by the AI Modeling Teams on the experimental and physics simulation data submitted to the American Science Cloud by this project. A purely empirical search for the best material is inefficient given the finite number of samples that can be tested on MPEX. In order to expand the material properties database for training the MPEX Material Assessment AI Digital Twin, and to gain physics understanding of the PMI processes, physics models of the material properties and PMI processes are required. The physics simulations provide detailed simulation data, like impact angles for plasma ions, sputtering yields, transport of the ionized sputtered target material in the plasma, and redeposition locations. This simulation data expands the measurement data for deeper physics understanding. The experimental data is essential to validate the PMI and material structure simulation models. The validated models can then be used to generate new simulation data of MPEX material assessments for synthetic material compositions that have not been exposed in MPEX. These predictive simulations, plus the whole experimental dataset, will be used to train the MPEX Material Assessment AI Digital Twin allowing a rapid generative AI search for new materials with reduced PMI damage by interpolating the domain of the training set. These new optimum materials can be simulated with the physics codes and/or tested in MPEX. The ability of AI neural networks to interpolate multi-dimensional parameter spaces and generate virtual data is exploited for a more efficient search for optimum materials. The advent of the Transformational AI Models Consortium (TAIMC) is an opportunity to engage with state of the art private and public AI developers to achieve the goals of the AI digital twins and AI accelerated physics models proposed in this project. Our partners at ORNL from the Advance Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) organization will collaborate in accelerating the integrated plasma material interaction simulation framework. This simulation framework will provide a platform for generating simulation data across a range of physical fidelities, including hybrid methods that produce multi-fidelity results. This data will be leveraged for AI model development, both for generation of surrogates and the automation of simulation campaigns. A part of the research below will include collaborative efforts with the TAIMC to (i) adapt data storage approaches to ensure AI-readiness, (ii) provide a protypical exemplar to inform and exercise constructed workflows, and (iii) generate and share data, using the TAIMC unified AI data standard, for foundational models that will be trained from multiple sources across the DOE complex. We will also collaborate with the TAIMC, as well as the planned AI modeling teams, to develop approaches for reducing the cost of data generation. These include tailored multi-fidelity approaches as well as fine-tuning strategies to augment general, large-scale foundational models.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Toward Automated Plasma Focus Ion Beam Instrument Calibration for Materials Processing [Poster]

To accelerate the transition to autonomous focused ion beam (FIB) microscopy, we require an objective figure of merit (FOM) for assessing calibration. For our purposes, these FOMs related to beam astigmatism, quad, and focus. Intelligent calibration integrated into scripted workflows will enable fully automated sample preparation workflows that produce higher quality samples with less operator time.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2026

Multiscale Cryo Electron Microscopy Reveals Interfacial Degradation and Stabilization in Battery Electrodes

Electrochemical interfaces are dynamic systems, evolving based on their local environment and reactant surface structures. The electrode-electrolyte interface in Li-ion batteries can be protective, limiting parasitic reactions with the electrolyte to passivate the surface [1]. Additionally, this interphase has an impact on the Li-ion transport through that layer based on its composition, bonding environment, and thickness. These parameters are challenging to collect and may vary depending on the electrode surface site investigated relative to its spatial position in a coin cell. This study will detail a multiscale cryogenic electron microscopy approach where millimeter-scale cross-sections through the coin cell batteries were made using a cryogenic stage within a fs-laser plasma focused ion beam (laser PFIB) with complementary energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy able to detect variations in the composition at electrode interfaces [2]. Microscale cross-sectioning and lamella sample preparation of battery electrodes was conducted at the Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies using a Ga-ion focused ion beam (FIB) with air-free and cryo-transfer [3], followed by nanoscale mapping of composition and bonding within the CEI through cryo-scanning transmission electron microscopy (cryo-STEM) electron energy loss spectroscopy [4]. This multiscale approach enabled identification of millimeter-scale features of a battery stack with visualization of degradation in electrodes such as cracks in cathode particles, gas evolution, and SEI evolution; microscale interfacial characteristics, such as heterogeneity in the SEI or barrier layer and identification of electrolyte networks to the electrode surfaces; and nanoscale measurement of the CEI thickness, mapping of transition metal bonding within the cathode particles to identify loss of active materials, and identification of beneficial electrolyte additives incorporated into the CEI structure. This multiscale approach allows for a statistical understanding of the primary mechanisms and parasitic degradation pathways that impact performance by limiting the ion transport pathways within Li+ batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

In silico analyses of diversity and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes and mobile genetics elements, for plasmids of enteric pathogens

The antimicrobial resistance (AMR) mobilome plays a key role in the dissemination of resistance genes encoded by mobile genetics elements (MGEs) including plasmids, transposons (Tns), and insertion sequences (ISs). These MGEs contribute to the dissemination of multidrug resistance (MDR) in enteric bacterial pathogens which have been considered as a global public health risk. To further understand the diversity and distribution of AMR genes and MGEs across different plasmid types, we utilized multiple sequence-based computational approaches to evaluate AMR-associated plasmid genetics. A collection of 1,309 complete plasmid sequences from Gammaproteobacterial species, including 100 plasmids from each of the following 14 incompatibility (Inc) types: A/C, BO, FIA, FIB, FIC, FIIA, HI1, HI2, I1, K, M, N, P except W, where only 9 sequences were available, was extracted from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) GenBank database using BLAST tools. The extracted FASTA files were analyzed using the AMRFinderPlus web-based tools to detect antimicrobial, disinfectant, biocide, and heavy metal resistance genes and ISFinder to identify IS/Tn MGEs within the plasmid sequences. In silico prediction based on plasmid replicon types showed that the resistance genes were diverse among plasmids, yet multiple genes were widely distributed across the plasmids from enteric bacterial species. These findings provide insights into the diversity of resistance genes and that MGEs mediate potential transmission of these genes across multiple plasmid replicon types. This notion was supported by the observation that many IS/Tn MGEs and resistance genes known to be associated with them were common across multiple different plasmid types. Our results provide critical insights about how the diverse population of resistance genes that are carried by the different plasmid types can allow for the dissemination of AMR across enteric bacteria. The results also highlight the value of computational-based approaches and in silico analyses for the assessment of AMR and MGEs, which are important elements of molecular epidemiology and public health outcomes.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

In-Plane Liftout and Push-to-Pull for In Situ Mechanical Testing of Irradiated Inconel X-750

A streamlined sample preparation method for nanomechanical testing is needed to improve the quality of specimens, reduce the cost, and increase the versatility of specimen fabrication. This work outlines an in-plane liftout focused ion beam (FIB) fabrication procedure to prepare electron-transparent specimens for in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) nanomechanical testing. Ion etching and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) techniques were used to lift out a [110] oriented grain from a neutron-irradiated bulk X-750 alloy. Careful control of voltages and currents ensured precision. Top surface thinning sweeps prevented resurfacing and redeposition while dog-bone geometries were shaped with a 1:4 gauge width-to-milling pattern diameter ratio. Nanotensile testing in the TEM with a picoindenter allowed for the estimation of an ultimate tensile strength of 2.41 GPa, and inspection revealed a high density of bubbles in the X-750 matrix. The proposed fabrication procedure is significant for preparing samples from radioactive materials, studying complex structures that are orientation-dependent, and analyzing desired planar areas.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Studying Corrosion Using Miniaturized Particle Attached Working Electrodes and the Nafion Membrane

We developed a new approach to attach particles onto a conductive layer as a working electrode (WE) in a microfluidic electrochemical cell with three electrodes. Nafion, an efficient proton transfer molecule, is used to form a thin protection layer to secure particle electrodes. Spin coating is used to develop a thin and even layer of Nafion membrane. The effects of Nafion (5 wt% 20 wt%) and spinning rates were evaluated using multiple sets of replicates. The electrochemical performance of various devices was demonstrated. Additionally, the electrochemical performance of the devices is used to select and optimize fabrication conditions. The results show that a higher spinning rate and a lower Nafion concentration (5 wt%) induce a better performance, using cerium oxide (CeO2) particles as a testing model. The WE surfaces were characterized using atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy-focused ion beam (SEM-FIB), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The comparison between the pristine and corroded WE surfaces shows that Nafion is redistributed after potential is applied. Our results verify that Nafion membrane offers a reliable means to secure particles onto electrodes. Furthermore, the electrochemical performance is reliable and reproducible. Thus, this approach provides a new way to study more complex and challenging particles, such as uranium oxide, in the future.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Gold Ion Beam Milled Gold Zero-Mode Waveguides

Zero-mode waveguides (ZMWs) are widely used in single molecule fluorescence microscopy for their enhancement of emitted light and the ability to study samples at physiological concentrations. ZMWs are typically produced using photo or electron beam lithography. We report a new method of ZMW production using focused ion beam (FIB) milling with gold ions. We demonstrate that ion-milled gold ZMWs with 200 nm apertures exhibit similar plasmon-enhanced fluorescence seen with ZMWs fabricated with traditional techniques such as electron beam lithography.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Reflective Fiber Temperature Probe Based on Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance towards Low-Cost and Wireless Interrogation

Reflection fiber temperature sensors functionalized with plasmonic nanocomposite material using intensity-based modulation are demonstrated for the first time. Characteristic temperature optical response of the reflective fiber sensor is experimentally tested using Au-incorporated nanocomposite thin films deposited on the fiber tip, and theoretically validated using a thin-film-optic-based optical waveguide model. By optimizing the Au concentration in a dielectric matrix, Au nanoparticles (NP) exhibit a localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) absorption band in a visible wavelength that shows a temperature sensitivity ~0.025%/°C as a result of electron–electron and electron–phonon scattering of Au NP and the surrounding matrix. Detailed optical material properties of the on-fiber sensor film are characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and focused-ion beam (FIB)-assisted transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Airy’s expression of transmission and reflection using complex optical constants of layered media is used to model the reflective optical waveguide. A low-cost wireless interrogator based on a photodiode transimpedance-amplifier (TIA) circuit with a low-pass filter is designed to integrate with the sensor. The converted analog voltage is wirelessly transmitted via 2.4 GHz Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocols. Feasibility is demonstrated for portable, remotely interrogated next-generation fiber optic temperature sensors with future capability for monitoring additional parameters of interest.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Development of mesopores in superfine grain graphite neutron-irradiated at high fluence

Microstructural changes induced by neutron irradiation of superfine grain graphite G347A (Tokai Carbon, Japan) were examined by nitrogen adsorption at 77K and by three microscopy techniques (SEM, TEM and FIB-SEM tomography). The specimens were irradiated at doses of up to 30 dpa, covering stages before and after the turnaround fluence at three temperatures (300, 450, 750 °C) of their irradiation envelope. The initial graphite densification at low fluences did not produce any detectable effect in the pore size range (<350 nm) measured by gas adsorption. However, graphite irradiated at high fluences, after turnaround, showed severe structural changes. At all three temperatures and high irradiation fluences, gas adsorption revealed significant increase of the volume of narrow mesopores (<5–20nm) and up to five times increase of BET surface area, both in linear relationship with the relative volume expansion. Analysis of microscopy images showed multiplication of fine macropores (>50 nm) at high irradiation fluences and more structural changes on multiple scales, from nanometers to microns. This work demonstrates the unique ability of gas adsorption techniques to analyze open pores with sizes between sub-nanometer and sub-micron in bulk nuclear graphite, with supporting microscopy results.

I. Contescu, Cristian↗
NASA NTRS1975

Fill-in binary loop pulse-torque quantizer

Fill-in binary (FIB) loop provides constant heating of torque generator, an advantage of binary current switching. At the same time, it avoids mode-related dead zone and data delay of binary, an advantage of ternary quantization.

Lory, C. B.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Applications of aerospace technology in biology and medicine

Utilization of NASA technology and its application to medicine is discussed. The introduction of new or improved commercially available medical products and incorporation of aerospace technology is outlined. A biopolar donor-recipient model of medical technology transfer is presented to provide a basis for the methodology. The methodology is designed to: (1) identify medical problems and NASA technology that, in combination, constitute opportunities for successful medical products; (2) obtain the early participation of industry in the transfer process; and (3) obtain acceptance by the medical community of new medical products based on NASA technology. Two commercial transfers were completed: the ocular screening device, a system for quick detection of vision problems in preschool children, and Porta-Fib III, a hospital monitoring unit. Two institutional transfers were completed: implant materials testing, the application of NASA fracture control technology to improve reliability of metallic prostheses, and incinerator monitoring, a quadrupole mass spectrometer to monitor combustion products of municipal incinerators. Mobility aids for the blind and ultrasound diagnosis of burn depth are also studied.

Rouse, D. J.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Reports on work in support of NASA's tracking and communication division

This is a report on the research conducted during the period October 1, 1991 through December 31, 1991. The research is divided into two primary areas: (1) generalization of the Fault Isolation using Bit Strings (FIBS) technique to permit fuzzy information to be used to isolate faults in the tracking and communications system of the Space Station; and (2) a study of the activity that should occur in the on board systems in order to attempt to recover from failures that are external to the Space Station.

Feagin, Terry↗
NASA NTRS1996

Durable High-Density Data Storage

The focus ion beam (FIB) micromilling process for data storage provides a new non-magnetic storage method for archiving large amounts of data. The process stores data on robust materials such as steel, silicon, and gold coated silicon. The storage process was developed to provide a method to insure the long term storage life of data. We estimate that the useful life of data written on silicon or gold-coated silicon to be on the order of a few thousand years without the need to rewrite the data every few years. The process uses an ion beam to carve material from the surface, much like stone cutters in ancient civilizations removed material from stone. The deeper the information is carved into the media, the longer the expected life of the information. The process can record information in three formats: (1) binary at densities of 23 Gbits/square inch, (2) alphanumeric at optical or non-optical density, and (3) graphical at optical and non-optical density. The formats can be mixed on the same media; and thus, it is possible to record, in a human-viewable format, instructions that can be read using an optical microscope. These instructions provide guidance on reading the remaining higher density information.

Lamartine, Bruce C.↗