Discrete Roughness Boundary-Layer Transition at Hypersonic Conditions
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Effect of Out-Gassing on the Onset of Hypersonic Boundary Layer Transition
Prediction and control of the onset of transition and the associated variation in aerothermodynamic parameters in high-speed flows is key to optimize the performance and design of Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) of next-generation aerospace vehicles [1]. Boundary Layer Transition (BLT) characteristics can influence the surface heating budget determining the TPS thickness and consequently its weight penalty. Ablative heatshields are designed to alleviate the high heat flux at the surface through pyrolysis of their polymeric matrix and subsequent fiber ablation [2]. Pyrolysis leads to out-gassing and non-uniform ablation lead to surface roughness, both of which are known to influence the transition process. An ablator impacts BLT through three main routes: gas injecting into the boundary layer from the wall, changing the surface heat transfer due to wall-flow chemical reactions, and modifying surface roughness [3]. In preparation to Mars 2020 mission post-flight analysis, the predictive transition capability has been initiated toward hard-coupling porous material response analysis and aerothermal environment calculation.
Karimi, Mona↗
The Influence of Low Wall Temperature on Boundary-Layer Transition and Local Heat Transfer on 2-Inch-Diameter Hemispheres at a Mach Number of 4.95 and a Reynolds Number per Foot of 73.2 x 10(exp 6)
Measurements of the location of boundary-layer transition and the local heat transfer have been made on 2-inch-diameter hemispheres in the Langley gas dynamics laboratory at a Mach number of 4.95, a Reynolds number per foot of 73.2 x 10(exp 6), and a stagnation temperature of approximately 400 F. The transient-heating thin-skin calorimeter technique was used, and the initial values of the wall-to-stream stagnation- temperature ratios were 0.16 (cold-model tests) and 0.65 (hot-model test). During two of the four cold tests, the boundary-layer flow changed from turbulent to laminar over large regions of the hemisphere as the model heated. On the basis of a detailed consideration of the magnitude of roughness possibly present during these two cold tests, it appears that this destabilizing effect of low wall temperatures (cooling) was not caused by roughness as a dominant influence. This idea of a decrease in boundary-layer stability with cooling has been previously suggested. (See, for example, NASA Memorandum 10-8-58E.) For the laminar data obtained during the early part of the hot test, the correlation of the local-heating data with laminar theory was excellent.
Cooper, Morton↗
Effects of Wing Sweep on Boundary-layer Transition for a Smooth F-14A Wing at Mach Numbers from 0.700 to 0.825
The results are discussed of the variable sweep transition flight experiment (VSTFE). The VSTFE was a natural laminar flow experiment flown on the swing wing F-14A aircraft. The main objective of the VSTFE was to determine the effects of wing sweep on boundary layer transition at conditions representative of transport aircraft. The experiment included the flight testing of two laminar flow wing gloves. Glove 1 was a cleanup of the existing F-14A wing. Glove 2, not discussed herein, was designed to provide favorable pressure distributions for natural laminar flow at Mach number (M) 0.700. The transition locations presented for glove 1 were determined primarily by using hot film sensors. Boundary layer rake data was provided as a supplement. Transition data were obtained for leading edge wing sweeps of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 degs, with Mach numbers ranging from 0.700 to 0.825, and altitudes ranging from 10,000 to 35,000 ft. Results show that a substantial amount of laminar flow was maintained at all the wing sweeps evaluated. The maximum transition Reynolds number of 13.7 x 10(exp 6) was obtained for the condition of 15 deg of sweep, M = 0.800, and an altitude of 20,000 ft.
Anderson, Bianca Trujillo↗
Boundary-layer Transition at Supersonic Speeds
Recent results of the effects of Mach number, stream turbulence, leading-edge geometry, leading-edge sweep, surface temperature, surface finish, pressure gradient, and angle of attack on boundary-layer transition are summarized. Factors that delay transition are nose blunting, surface cooling, and favorable pressure gradient. Leading-edge sweep and excessive surface roughness tend to promote early transition. The effects of leading-edge blunting on two-dimensional surfaces and surface cooling can be predicted adequately by existing theories, at least in the moderate Mach number range.
Low, George M↗
Experimental study of boundary layer transition on a heated flat plate
A detailed investigation to the document momentum and thermal development of boundary layers undergoing natural transition on a heated flat plate was performed. Experimental results of both overall and conditionally sampled characteristics of laminar, transitional, and low Reynolds number turbulent boundary layers are presented. Measurements were done in a low-speed, closed-loop wind tunnel with a freestream velocity of 100 ft/s and zero pressure gradient over a range of freestream turbulence intensities from 0.4 to 6 percent. The distributions of skin friction, heat transfer rate, and Reynolds shear stress were all consistent with previously published data. Reynolds analogy factors for momentum thickness Reynolds number, Re(sub theta) less than 2300 were found to be well predicted by laminar and turbulent correlations which accounted for an unheated starting length and uniform heat flux. A small dependence of turbulence results on the freestream turbulence intensity was observed.
Sohn, K. H.↗
Experimental study of boundary layer transition on a heated flat plate
A detailed investigation to the document momentum and thermal development of boundary layers undergoing natural transition on a heated flat plate was performed. Experimental results of both overall and conditionally sampled characteristics of laminar, transitional, and low Reynolds number turbulent boundary layers are presented. Measurements were done in a low-speed, closed-loop wind tunnel with a freestream velocity of 100 ft/s and zero pressure gradient over a range of freestream turbulence intensities from 0.4 to 6 percent. The distributions of skin friction, heat transfer rate, and Reynolds shear stress were all consistent with previously published data. Reynolds analogy factors for momentum thickness Reynolds number, Re(sub theta) less than 2300 were found to be well predicted by laminar and turbulent correlations which accounted for an unheated starting length and uniform heat flux. A small dependence of turbulence results on the freestream turbulence intensity was observed.
Sohn, K. H.↗
Heat transfer and fluid mechanics measurements in transitional boundary layer flows
Experimental results are presented to document hydrodynamic and thermal development of flat-plate boundary layers undergoing natural transition. Local heat transfer coefficients, skin friction coefficients and profiles of velocity, temperature and Reynolds normal and shear stresses are presented. A case with no transition and transitional cases with 0.68% and 2.0% free-stream disturbance intensities were investigated. The locations of transition are consistent with earlier data. A late-laminar state with significant levels of turbulence is documented. In late-transitional and early-turbulent flows, turbulent Prandtl number and conduction layer thickness values exceed, and the Reynolds analogy factor is less than, values previously measured in fully turbulent flows.
Wang, T.↗
Heat transfer and fluid mechanics measurements in transitional boundary layer flows
Experimental results are presented to document hydrodynamic and thermal development of flat-plate boundary layers undergoing natural transition. Local heat transfer coefficients, skin friction coefficients and profiles of velocity, temperature and Reynolds normal and shear stresses are presented. A case with no transition and transitional cases with 0.68 percent and 2.0 percent free-stream disturbance intensities were investigated. The locations of transition are consistent with earlier data. A late-laminar state with significant levels of turbulence is documented. In late-transitional and early-turbulent flows, turbulent Prandtl number and conduction layer thickness values exceed, and the Reynolds analogy factor is less than, values previously measured in fully turbulent flows.
Wang, T.↗
Effects of Nose Radius and Extreme Cooling on Boundary-Layer Transition for Three Smooth 15°-Cone-Cylinders in Free Flight at Mach Numbers to 8.50
Three highly polished 15°- included- angle cone- cylinders with hemispherical tips of several diameters ( 2, 3, and 4 in.) have been flown in order to obtain boundary- layer transition data at very low wall to local stream temperature ratios, and heat- transfer data. All surfaces had a 2-microinch average roughness height. Laminar flow existed over the entire hemispherical nose of the 2- and 3-inch-tip- diameter models throughout the complete flight history. Extreme cooling to wall to local stream temperature ratios at the sonic point as low as 0.20 did not cause transition on the nose for diameters as large as 3 inches. However, extreme cooling did cause early transition on the 4-inch model where it appears probable that transition occurred forward of the 45° station at a wall to local stream temperature ratio of about 0.26. Variations in tip diameter influenced transition downstream of the nose under conditions of extreme cooling. The 2-inch- tip model was laminar at all cone- cylinder stations at temperature ratios as low as 0.32 whereas the 3- and 4-inch-tip models were turbulent at the same local flow conditions but at higher wall to local temperature ratios. Transition on the cone and cylinder of the 3- and 4-inch- tip bodies appeared to be sensitive to local Mach number, and occurred at higher local temperature ratios when values of local Mach number were higher. Increasing the nose diameter from 2 to 3 inches significantly changed the local flow conditions for which laminar flow existed on the cone- cylinder afterbody. However, a further increase in tip size t o a 4-inch diameter had no discernable effect on the local flow conditions at transition. The transition results of the 3- and 4-inch-nose-diameter smooth bodies are similar to those observed on a 7/8-inch-nose-diameter body with roughened surfaces. Turbulent boundary layers resulted in both cases at very low wall to local stream temperature ratios. Both laminar and turbulent heat-transfer data were in good agreement with theoretical Stanton numbers when heat-transfer reduction due to tip blunting was considered.
CYLINDRICAL AFTERBODY↗
Dynamic subgrid-scale modeling for high-speed transitional boundary layers
The subgrid scales are modeled dynamically in a large-eddy simulation of transitional boundary-layer flow along a hollow cylinder at a Mach number of 4.5. The behavior of the dynamic-model coefficients, which is determined from local information in the resolved field, is investigated through both an a priori test with direct numerical simulation data for the same case and a complete large-eddy simulation. Both contractions proposed by Germano et al. (1991) and Lilly (1992) are used for the unique determination of the coefficients of the dynamic model, and their results are compared and assessed. The behavior, as well as the energy cascade of the subgridscale field structure, is investigated at various stages of the transition process.
El-Hady, Nabil M.↗
Effects of Wing Sweep on In-flight Boundary-layer Transition for a Laminar Flow Wing at Mach Numbers from 0.60 to 0.79
The variable sweep transition flight experiment (VSTFE) was conducted on an F-14A variable sweep wing fighter to examine the effect of wing sweep on natural boundary layer transition. Nearly full span upper surface gloves, extending to 60 percent chord, were attached to the F-14 aircraft's wings. The results are presented of the glove 2 flight tests. Glove 2 had an airfoil shape designed for natural laminar flow at a wing sweep of 20 deg. Sample pressure distributions and transition locations are presented with the complete results tabulated in a database. Data were obtained at wing sweeps of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 deg, at Mach numbers ranging from 0.60 to 0.79, and at altitudes ranging from 10,000 to 35,000 ft. Results show that a substantial amount of laminar flow was maintained at all the wing sweeps evaluated. The maximum transition Reynolds number obtained was 18.6 x 10(exp 6) at 15 deg of wing sweep, Mach 0.75, and at an altitude of 10,000 ft.
Anderson, Bianca Trujillo↗
Influence of surface static-pressure orifices on boundary-layer transition
An investigation of the interaction of a laminar boundary layer and surface static-pressure orifices was conducted on a natural laminar flow airfoil. The effects of both favorable and adverse pressure gradients were studied at Reynolds numbers based on airfoil chord from approximately 500,000 to 6,000,000 with Mach number varying accordingly from about 0.03 to 0.42. The smaller the diameter of the orifice, the less likely it will cause premature transition. Locating the orifices in a chord-wise row aligned with the flow appears to have an additive, adverse effect on transition. Tube length-to-orifice diameter ration does not seem to have a consistent influence on transition.
Somers, D. M.↗
Flight survey of the 757 wing noise field and its effects on laminar boundary layer transition. Volume 1: Program description and data analysis
It was previously observed that an incident acoustic field on a wing with laminar flow can cause transition to turbulent flow if the fluctuating acoustic velocities are of sufficient amplitude and in the critical frequency range for an unstable laminar boundary layer. A section of a wing was modified with a natural laminar flow (NLF) glove to allow direct measurement of the effect of varying engine noise on the extent of laminar flow. The flight test program was completed in June, 1985. At each flight condition, the engine power was varied from about 2600 r/min (idle) to about 4500 r/min (maximum continuous power). The spectral data provides considerable insight into the influences of the various sound sources that contribute to the overall noise levels. Additional analysis will be required to assess the impact of these sources on boundary layer transition. These results demonstrate that substantial laminar flow on the wing of a transport configuration with wing-mounted engines can be obtained.
Source record↗
Measured and calculated wall temperatures on air-cooled turbine vanes with boundary layer transition
Convection cooled turbine vane metal wall temperatures experimentally obtained in a hot cascade for one vane design were compared with wall temperatures calculated with TACT1 and STAN5 computer codes which incorporated various models for predicting laminar-to-turbulent boundary layer transition. Favorable comparisons on both vane surface were obtained at high Reynolds number with only one of these transition models. When other models were used, temperature differences between calculated and experimental data obtained at the high Reynolds number were as much as 14 percent in the separation bubble region of the pressure surface. On the suction surface and at lower Reynolds number, predictions and data unsatisfactorily differed by as much as 22 percent. Temperature differences of this magnitude can represent orders of magnitude error in blade life prediction.
Liebert, C. H.↗
Preliminary In-Flight Boundary Layer Transition Measurements on a 45 Deg Swept Wing at Mach Numbers Between 0.9 and 1.8
A preliminary flight experiment was flown to generate a full-scale supersonic data base to aid the assessment of computational codes, to improve instrumentation for measuring boundary layer transition at supersonic speeds, and to provide preliminary information for the definition of follow-on programs. The experiment was conducted using an F-15 aircraft modified with a small cleanup test section on the right wing. Results are presented for Mach (M) numbers from 0.9 to 1.8 at altitudes from 25,000 to 55,000 ft. At M greater than or = 1.2, transition occurred near or at the leading edge for the clean configuration. The furthest aft that transition was measured was 20 percent chord at M = 0.9 and M = 0.97. No change in transition location was observed after the addition of a notch-bump on the leading edge of the inboard side of the test section which was intended to minimize attachment line transition problems. Some flow visualization was attempted during the flight experiment with both subliming chemicals and liquid crystals. However, difficulties arose from the limited time the test aircraft was able to hold test conditions and the difficulty of positioning the photo chase aircraft during supersonic test points. Therefore, no supersonic transition results were obtained.
Johnson, J. Blair↗
Design and Implementation of the Boundary Layer Transition Flight Experiment on Space Shuttle Discovery
In an effort to better the understanding of high speed aerodynamics, a series of flight experiments were installed on Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-119 and STS-128 missions. This experiment, known as the Boundary Layer Transition Flight Experiment (BLTFE), provided the technical community with actual entry flight data from a known height protuberance at Mach numbers at and above Mach 15. Any such data above Mach 15 is irreproducible in a laboratory setting. Years of effort have been invested in obtaining this valuable data, and many obstacles had to be overcome in order to ensure the success of implementing an Orbiter modification. Many Space Shuttle systems were involved in the installation of appropriate components that revealed 'concurrent engineering' was a key integration tool. This allowed the coordination of all various parts and pieces which had to be sequenced appropriately and installed at the right time. Several issues encountered include Orbiter configuration and access, design requirements versus current layout, implementing the modification versus typical processing timelines, and optimizing the engineering design cycles and changes. Open lines of communication within the entire modification team were essential to project success as the team was spread out across the United States, from NASA Kennedy Space Center in Florida, to NASA Johnson Space Center in Texas, to Boeing Huntington Beach, California among others. The forum permits the discussion of processing concerns from the design phase to the implementation phase, which eventually saw the successful flights and data acquisition on STS-119 in March 2009 and on STS-128 in September 2009.
Spanos, Theodoros A.↗
Boundary-layer transition on sharp cones at hypersonic Mach numbers.
Transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow on sharp cones hypersonic Mach numbers, noting measurement techniques
Henderson, A., Jr.↗