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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Cryogenic thermal modeling of microwave high density signaling

Superconducting quantum computers require microwave control lines running from room temperature to the mixing chamber of a dilution refrigerator. Adding more lines without preliminary thermal modeling to make predictions risks overwhelming the cooling power at each thermal stage. In this paper, we investigate the thermal load of SC-086/50-SCN-CN semi-rigid coaxial cable, which is commonly used for the control and readout lines of a superconducting quantum computer, as we increase the number of lines to a quantum processor. We investigate the makeup of the coaxial cables, verify the materials and dimensions, and experimentally measure the total thermal conductivity of a single cable as a function of the temperature from cryogenic to room temperature values. We also measure the cryogenic DC electrical resistance of the inner conductor as a function of temperature, allowing for the calculation of active thermal loads due to Ohmic heating. Fitting this data produces a numerical thermal conductivity function used to calculate the static heat loads due to thermal transfer within the wires resulting from a temperature gradient. The resistivity data is used to calculate active heat loads, and we use these fits in a cryogenic model of a superconducting quantum processor in a typical Bluefors XLD1000-SL dilution refrigerator, investigating how the thermal load increases with processor sizes ranging from 100 to 225 qubits. We conclude that the theoretical upper limit of the described architecture is approximately 200 qubits. However, including an engineering margin in the cooling power and the available space for microwave readout circuitry at the mixing chamber, the practical limit is approximately 140 qubits.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2023

Line emission mapper microcalorimeter spectrometer

The line emission mapper (LEM) is a probe-class mission concept that is designed to detect x-ray emission lines from hot ionized gas (T > 10 6 K) that will enable us to test galaxy evolution theories. It will permit us to study the effects of stellar and black-hole feedback and flows of baryonic matter into and out of galaxies. The key to being able to study the hot gases that are otherwise invisible to current imaging x-ray spectrometers is that the energy resolution is sufficient to use cosmological redshift to separate extragalactic source lines from foreground Milky Way emission. LEM incorporates a large-format microcalorimeter array instrument called the LEM microcalorimeter spectrometer (LMS) with a light-weight x-ray optic with 10” half power diameter angular resolution. The LMS microcalorimeter array has pixels with 15" pixel pitch over a 33' field of view (FOV) optimized for the 0.3 to 2 keV energy band. The central 7' region of the array has an energy resolution of 1.3 eV at 1 keV and the rest of the FOV has 2.5 eV energy resolution at 1 keV. The array will be read out with state-of-the-art time-division multiplexing. We present an overview of the LMS instrument, including details of the entire detection chain, the focal plane assembly, as well as the cooling system and overall mechanical and thermal design. For each of the key technologies, we discuss the current technology readiness level and the plan to advance them to be ready for flight. We also describe the current system design and our estimate for the mass, power, and data rate of the instrument. The design details presented concentrate primarily on the unique aspects of the LMS design compared with prior missions and confirm that the type of microcalorimeter instrument needed for LEM is not only feasible but also technically mature.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2021

YBCO-on-Kapton: Material for High-Density Quan-tum Computer Interconnects with Ultra-Low Thermal Conductance

Development of practical quantum computers would require 1000's of qubits and equally large number of read-outs, bias and drive lines. New materials that combine low passive loss and good RF properties are needed. In this study we report performance of signal interconnects comprised of high-temperature YBCO films that are exfoliated from a metal substrate and transferred to a E-Kapton tape. The technology offers low-loss transition be-tween 60 K to sub-mK environments and interfacing with off-shelf flexible silicon electronics. We demonstrate < 1 dB/m at-tenuation at 6 GHz at 77 K. The microstrip assemblies demon-strated no degradation upon multiple cycles to liquid Nitrogen and conduction cooling down to 18 K. We discuss designs of a practical high-density signal cable with passive heat load well below 1 μW per line. The YBCO-on-Kapton technology offers a practical pathway to large error-corrected quantum computing systems.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

New Materials and an Efficient Processing Approach for Materials for Harsh Environments – Continuous Electric Field Assisted Sintering

Electric-field assisted sintering (EFAS) is an advanced manufacturing method for the consolidation and processing of ceramic and metal materials. It is a particularly excellent candidate for efficient materials processing as it has greater than 90% energy cost savings and improved CO2 emissions compared to traditional sintering in a furnace. This is due to direct rapid heating of the materials and molds leveraging an electrification phenomenon called Joule heating where electrical current is passed through the sample/mold assemblies causing direct heating. The technique does have limitations though as it is traditionally a batch-process and suffers from scale up difficulties. To overcome this, researchers at Idaho National Laboratory changed the form factor of traditional EFAS instruments to develop and construct a continuous rolling electric-field assisted sintering (CEFAS) device. Its unique design creates highly localized electrical, thermal, and mechanical process parameters for continuous samples of limitless length. Advanced core shell powder materials were also created using fluidized powder bed atomic layer deposition of core/shell solid oxide electrochemical electrode/electrolyte BaCe0.7Zr0.1Y0.1Yb0.1O3 (BCZYYb) and yttrium doped BaZrO3 (BZY) to be a feedstock for the new CEFAS instrument. The innovative core/shell powder is hypothesized to have high protonic conductivity with enhanced environmental resistance. The completed project covers innovations in process control and design enabled by control theory, finite element modeling and mechanical design, three dimensionally printed carbon-carbon composite manufacturing and utilization, and green materials processing techniques.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-Temperature Neutron Diffraction Study of Vanadium and Vanadium–Niobium Null-Matrix Alloy for Spectrum Normalization

This study systematically evaluates a vanadium–niobium (V 94.1 Nb 5.9 ) null-matrix alloy as a reference material for neutron spectrum normalization and compares its performance with that of pure vanadium under identical experimental conditions. Neutron diffraction experiments are conducted on the VULCAN Engineering Materials Diffractometer at the Spallation Neutron Source, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, over a temperature range from room temperature to 1200 °C under vacuum. Pure vanadium exhibited distinct Bragg peaks across all temperatures, with its diffraction behavior influenced by both sample orientation and temperature. As the temperature increased, the diffraction peaks shifted to larger d-spacings and decreased in intensity, while spectral deviation near d ≈ 2.8 Å exceeded 10% at 1200 °C. In contrast, the V–Nb alloy produced a nearly featureless spectrum over the full d-spacing range, confirming near-complete cancellation of coherent scattering over the wide temperature range. Its spectra were insensitive to sample orientation, temperature, and microstructural evolution, with spectral deviation around d ≈ 2.8 Å exceeded 5% at 1200 °C. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that the V–Nb null-matrix alloy provides a thermally stable, efficient, and reliable normalization standard for time-of-flight diffractometers or other instrument where it is needed, enabling reduced data acquisition time and improved data quality in high-temperature neutron diffraction experiments.

Alloys↗
DOE OSTI2025

Initial in-orbit operation of the soft X-ray spectrometer Resolve onboard the X-ray imaging and spectroscopy mission satellite

The X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission satellite was launched on September 6, 2023 (UT). Its Resolve instrument is a high-resolution X-ray spectrometer enabled by a microcalorimeter array thermally anchored to a 50-mK heat sink. Many sensitive, critical sub-systems comprise Resolve, including a multistage cryogenic cooling system, thin-film aperture filters, low-noise electronics, on-board signal processing, and several sources of X-rays for calibration. We summarize the initial on-orbit power-on and checkout of Resolve that commenced immediately after launch. Soon after launch, the cryocoolers were activated, and their operation was successfully established. On October 9, 2023, the first cycle of the adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator was carried out, bringing the sensors to their steady-state operational temperatures. Following this, the energy resolution at 5.9 keV was successfully measured. The energy scale of the system is highly sensitive to the thermal environment surrounding both the sensors and their analog electronics. Gain correction was performed using reference X-ray lines from onboard calibration sources. To optimize cooler frequency settings, noise spectra were collected across a range of frequencies, and the most suitable frequency pair was selected based on the in-orbit environment. During the final phase of the checkout, an attempt was made to open the gate valve, which is designed to protect the Dewar’s interior from external pressure during ground operations and launch. Unfortunately, this attempt was unsuccessful. As a result, the checkout process was temporarily paused, and a stable operational strategy was subsequently developed to enable Resolve to function effectively with the gate valve remaining closed.

X-ray micro-calorimeter↗
DOE OSTI2022

Measurements of the thermal conductivity of reference liquids using a modified transient hot-wire needle probe

Many power generation processes feature some type of working fluid that plays a critical role in the transfer of heat throughout the system. To optimize thermal efficiencies, an accurate characterization of the temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of the fluid is needed. Herein, this study develops a time-domain Modified Transient Hot-wire Needle Probe to overcome phenomena that have impaired traditional measurement techniques when the fluid is both corrosive and at an elevated temperature. First, the physical design of the instrument is presented to demonstrate features that limit interference from corrosion, electrical conduction, and convective and radiative heat transfer. Next, a governing equation for 1D (radial) heat conduction is fully developed using the thermal quadrupoles technique. A finite-element study is performed for validation. A sensitivity analysis is done to assess the time-dependent influence of critical parameters in the governing equation for several samples. Finally, thermal conductivity measurements are presented for seven different liquid substances by fitting the thermal model to experimental data across a range of temperatures. Reference correlations are included for comparison. The sample thermal conductivity and ambient temperature of the experimental conditions range from 0.125–16.5$\frac{W}{m·K}$ and 10–400°C, respectively. The total uncertainty, comprised of both the experimental design and fitting process, of all measurements is quantified.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) science: Resolving the hot and ionized Universe through the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect

An omnipresent feature of the multi-phase “cosmic web” — the large-scale filamentary backbone of the Universe — is that warm/hot (≳ 10 5 K) ionized gas pervades it. This gas constitutes a relevant contribution to the overall universal matter budget across multiple scales, from the several tens of Mpc-scale intergalactic filaments, to the Mpc intracluster medium (ICM), all the way down to the circumgalactic medium (CGM) surrounding individual galaxies, on scales from ~ 1 kpc up to their respective virial radii (~ 100 kpc). The study of the hot baryonic component of cosmic matter density represents a powerful means for constraining the intertwined evolution of galactic populations and large-scale cosmological structures, for tracing the matter assembly in the Universe and its thermal history. To this end, the Sunyaev-Zeldovich (SZ) effect provides the ideal observational tool for measurements out to the beginnings of structure formation. The SZ effect is caused by the scattering of the photons from the cosmic microwave background off the hot electrons embedded within cosmic structures, and provides a redshift-independent perspective on the thermal and kinematic properties of the warm/hot gas. Still, current and next-generation (sub)millimeter facilities have been providing only a partial view of the SZ Universe due to any combination of: limited angular resolution, spectral coverage, field of view, spatial dynamic range, sensitivity, or all of the above. In this paper, we motivate the development of a wide-field, broad-band, multi-chroic continuum instrument for the Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) by identifying the scientific drivers that will deepen our understanding of the complex thermal evolution of cosmic structures. On a technical side, this will necessarily require efficient multi-wavelength mapping of the SZ signal with an unprecedented spatial dynamic range (from arcsecond to degree scales) and we employ detailed theoretical forecasts to determine the key instrumental constraints for achieving our goals.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Design of an Out-Of-Pile Experimental Facility to Demonstrate the Feasibility of In Situ Thermal Conductivity Measurements of Nuclear Fuels Under Irradiation

There is substantial merit in quantifying nuclear fuel performance under irradiation. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), the MiniFuel irradiation platform has become the primary test vehicle for conducting separate-effects fuel performance irradiation experiments. The MiniFuel experiment is a passively controlled capsule design deployed in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) through which fuel performance data is collected post-irradiation. Separate effects fuels irradiation capabilities are being expanded at ORNL by developing instrumented capsule designs that aim to capture fuel performance phenomena in-situ. One such capsule will specifically target fuel specimen thermal conductivity changes as a function of fuel burnup. Due to the complexity of making this measurement on nuclear fuel in-pile, this paper describes the necessary out-of-pile testing conducted on the thermal conductivity capsule (TCC) design. The measurement is ascertained via a thermopile system with heat transferred unidirectionally through a surrogate fuel specimen sandwiched between two conductive materials. The capsules investigated in this study are representative of the in-pile design, with the primary departure from irradiation conditions being the distribution of heat generation within the capsule. In the out-of-pile experiment, an external heater was used to drive heat through the conductive slug materials and into the specimen. This paper expounds the design of the out-of-pile experimental system and the thermal conductivity measurement technique. Predictive models used to determine the sensitivity of the measurement to variables governing thermal contact conductance between the specimen and slug materials and to predict experimental results are also described. Data from the out-of-pile experiment will be used to validate the readiness of the design for insertion into HFIR for irradiation.

Parker, Trevor [ORNL]↗
DOE OSTI2022

Forecasting ground-based sensitivity to the Rayleigh scattering of the CMB in the presence of astrophysical foregrounds

The Rayleigh scattering of cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons off the neutral hydrogen produced during recombination effectively creates an additional scattering surface after recombination that encodes new cosmological information, including the expansion and ionization history of the universe. A first detection of Rayleigh scattering is a tantalizing target for next-generation CMB experiments. We have developed a Rayleigh scattering forecasting pipeline that includes instrumental effects, atmospheric noise, and astrophysical foregrounds (e.g., Galactic dust, cosmic infrared background, or CIB, and the thermal Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect). We forecast the Rayleigh scattering detection significance for several upcoming ground-based experiments, including SPT-3G+, Simons Observatory, CCAT-prime, and CMB-S4, and examine the limitations from atmospheric and astrophysical foregrounds as well as potential mitigation strategies. When combined with Planck data, we estimate that the ground-based experiments will detect Rayleigh scattering with a significance between 1.6 and 3.7, primarily limited by atmospheric noise and the CIB.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Aerosol jet printed 3 omega sensors for thermal conductivity measurement

The 3 omega (3ω) method is a trusted technique for measuring thermal conductivity—a fundamental material property of critical importance in a broad range of applications. However, traditional 3ω sensor processing requires some form of physical vapor deposition, such as metal evaporation or sputtering. These 3ω sensor deposition techniques limit the materials and sample sizes applicable to the 3ω method. This work demonstrates an aerosol jet printing method to directly print silver 3ω sensors that yield accurate temperature-dependent measurement up to 300 °C on materials with thermal conductivity ranging from 1 to 150 W/m K. The interrelationship between printed sensor geometry, sensor thermal stability, and applicability to the 3ω method is examined. Thermal conductivity measurement with 3ω sensors conventionally sintered at 300 °C agrees to independent laser flash measurement within 4% from room temperature to 150 °C. An unconventional rapid high-temperature sintering method is shown to produce sensors that agree within 3% of the laser flash measurements from room temperature to 300 °C. The rapid sintering profiles also reduced the sensor–substrate thermal boundary resistance of the printed sensors by as much as 88%. The direct printing of 3ω sensors creates opportunities for measurement of thermal transport properties in applications previously inapplicable to the 3ω method.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Polymer-Based Thermally Stable Chemiresistive Sensor for Real-Time Monitoring of NO 2 Gas Emission

Here, we present a thermally stable, mechanically compliant, and sensitive polymer-based NO 2 gas sensor design. Interconnected nanoscale morphology driven from spinodal decomposition between conjugated polymers tethered with polar side chains and thermally stable matrix polymers offers judicious design of NO 2 -sensitive and thermally tolerant thin films. The resulting chemiresitive sensors exhibit stable NO 2 sensing even at 170 °C over 6 h. Controlling the density of polar side chains along conjugated polymer backbone enables optimal design for coupling high NO 2 sensitivity, selectivity, and thermal stability of polymer sensors. Lastly, thermally stable films are used to implement chemiresistive sensors onto flexible and heat-resistant substrates and demonstrate a reliable gas sensing response even after 500 bending cycles at 170 °C. Such unprecedented sensor performance as well as environmental stability are promising for real-time monitoring of gas emission from vehicles and industrial chemical processes.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Design Report on the MiniFuel Instrumented Test Apparatus for Understanding Radiation Effects

Most nuclear fuels irradiations at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) over the past decade have been conducted using MiniFuel—a static capsule design employing subscale fuel specimens to collect separate-effects irradiated fuel performance data. Irradiation conditions for MiniFuel experiments are predicted pre-test using reactor physics, and thermal models are verified post-irradiation via SiC dilatometry and various spectrometry methods. Relevant fuel performance parameters are also observed post-irradiation in a hot cell, thereby providing a single data point for each parameter representing the cumulative effects of the irradiation conditions. Substantially more data can be harvested from a single test and within a shorter duration by instrumenting irradiation vehicles and measuring desired quantities in situ. This report presents the design and analysis of the MiniFuel INstrumented Irradiation Test Apparatus for Understanding Radiation Effects (MINITAURE)—an instrumented test rig based on the separate-effects MiniFuel concept that aims to capture fission gas release (FGR) and thermal conductivity degradation of fuel specimens during irradiation in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). MINITAURE will be integrated with the Materials Irradiation Facility (MIF) located in the HFIR building outside the reactor containment. The MIF will act as the instrumentation and control center for the experiment, enabling real-time feedback from in situ sensors and control of irradiation temperatures via a gas delivery system. Two unique capsule designs were developed to capture each phenomenon: the thermal conductivity capsule, which uses a thermopile method to estimate fuel specimen thermal conductivity, and the fission gas release capsule, which will have continuous flowing gas communication to high-purity germanium detectors that are housed in the MIF for monitoring FGR. This report details the reactor physics and heat transfer modeling activities that were used to inform the experiment design and predict capsule performance. It also describes out-of-pile activities conducted to stand up this new capability and verify the measurement techniques. Modeling efforts to date have demonstrated the feasibility of the in situ measurement techniques and supported the development of the MINITAURE assembly configuration. Out-of-pile testing of the thermal conductivity measurement shows promise in capturing relative changes in thermal conductivity. However, significant errors exist in the measured absolute value, posing a need for further refinement.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Development of an In Situ Fission Gas Release Instrument for Fuel Sample Irradiations in the High Flux Isotope Reactor

Experimental measurement of gaseous fission product release with respect to temperature and burnup is a critical aspect of understanding nuclear fuel performance, validating predictive models, and qualifying new fuels. To measure this phenomenon in real-time, Oak Ridge National Laboratory has developed an instrument for measuring in situ fission gas release from small-scale fuel samples irradiated in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). The instrument uses a continuous flow of Heover the fuel samples to sweep gaseous fission products from a sealed capsule in the HFIR Be reflector to an instrument station adjacent to the reactor. The instrument station houses two high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors that measure decay gamma rays from fission products passing through a room temperature dwell chamber placed over the detector crystal. The sealed capsules in the reactor are designed to modulate fuel sample temperatures between 700 and 1,100°C by changing the Ar/He gas mixture surrounding the capsules during irradiation. N-type thermocouples are incorporated into the capsule housing to record real-time fuel temperatures. The capsules are heated primarily by prompt gamma rays emitted from the HFIR core with minimal heat contributions from fission in the fuel samples to minimize temperature gradients in the specimens for separate-effects characterization of the material. This paper describes modeling of time-dependent nuclear heating and fission product formation in fuel samples, thermal characteristics of the in-core capsules, and expected gaseous fission product gamma spectra at the HPGe instrument station.

Mulligan, Padhraic L [ORNL] (ORCID:000000025826540↗
DOE OSTI2023

Numerical Investigation of Wall-Cooling Effect on Aero-Optical Distortions for Hypersonic Boundary Layer

Compressible wall-modeled large-eddy simulations of Mach 8 turbulent boundary-layer flows over a flat plate were carried out for the conditions of the hypersonic wind tunnel at Sandia National Laboratories. The simulations provide new insight into the effect of wall cooling on the aero-optical path distortions for hypersonic turbulent boundary-layer flows. Four different wall-to-recovery temperature ratios, 0.3, 0.48, 0.71, and 0.89, are considered. Despite the much lower grid resolution, the mean velocity, temperature, and resolved Reynolds stress profiles from the simulation for a temperature ratio of 0.48 are in good agreement with those from a reference direct numerical simulation. The normalized root-mean-square optical path difference obtained from the present simulations is compared with that from reference direct numerical simulations, Sandia experiments, as well as predictions obtained with a semi-analytical model by Notre Dame University. Here the present analysis focuses on the effect of wall cooling on the wall-normal density correlations, on key underlying assumptions of the aforementioned model such as the strong Reynolds analogy, and on the elevation angle effect on the optical path difference. Wall cooling is found to increase the velocity fluctuations and decrease the density fluctuations, resulting in an overall reduction of the normalized optical path distortion. Compared to the simulations, the basic strong Reynolds analogy overpredicts the temperature fluctuations for cooled walls. Also different from the strong Reynolds analogy, the velocity and temperature fluctuations are not perfectly anticorrelated. Finally, as the wall temperature is raised, the density correlation length, away from the wall but inside the boundary layer, increases significantly for beam paths tilted in the downstream direction.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impact of Thermal Stress on Attachment and Stability of High Temperature Strain Sensors

Static and dynamic strain sensing is required in high-temperature (HT), harsh-environments (HE) for industrial, aerospace, and energy sector applications to ensure equipment and process safety, reduce the cost of operation and maintenance, and increase process efficiency. Challenges that arise in HT HE sensing applications include device mounting, packaging, integrity, and stability to HT HE conditions. In previously reported work, static and dynamic strain surface acoustic wave resonator (SAWR) sensors were fabricated on langasite (LGS) and mounted on Inconel 625 strain beams for wireless testing up to 400°C. In this work, it has been identified that after subjecting the mounted SAWR strain sensor to thermal cycling between 100°C and 425°C, the measured sensitivity to dynamic strain decreased by 73% due to cracking at the adhesive/LGS interface, further deteriorating after additional thermal cycles. Strain modeling of the mounted LGS sensor chip up to 400°C revealed the existence of concentrated strain at the borders of the LGS chip. Microcracks caused by dicing make the chip boarders the most susceptible location for cracks to initiate when the sensor is subjected to thermal stress. In an attempt to mitigate the high strain at the LGS chip borders due to heating, adhesive shaping is proposed in this work. Simulations indicate a strain reduction of 50% at the border is achieved using both circular and triangular adhesive shapes, while also reducing the maximum strain over the entire adhesive/LGS interface by around 30%. Furthermore, the technique is thus promising for improving the integrity, reliability, and stability of static and dynamic strain sensors, particularly while operating under HT HE with several hundreddegree Celsius temperature excursions.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2022

TEDS Test Plan for Performance Characterization of Packed-bed Thermal Energy Storage Unit

This report proposes a set of test plans for performance measurement and characterization of the packed-bed thermal energy storage (TES) unit for TEDS. The main goals of this test plan are three-fold: (i) support the high-fidelity data measurement for TEDS, (ii) characterize thermal and structural performance of the TEDS TES unit, and (iii) produce high quality validation-oriented data. To achieve the goals, it is first suggested to revisit the instrument calibration and data sampling protocols applied during the startup and commissioning tests of TEDS, based on the observation from the recent CFD validation study using the TEDS TES operational data. The uncertainty quantification of the thermal and hydraulic measurements is also suggested. Lastly, test matrices are provided for charge, discharge, and standby modes of the packed-bed TES unit, respectively, to characterize the thermal and structural performances during the envisioned TEDS operations.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗