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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Quantifying the effect of hydride microstructure on zirconium alloys embrittlement using image analysis

Since hydride microstructure can significantly influence Zr alloy nuclear fuel cladding’s ductility, a new metric has been developed to quantify hydride microstructure in 2D micrographs and relate it to crack propagation. As cladding failure usually results from a hoop stress, this new metric, called the Radial Hydride Continuous Path (RHCP), is based on quantifying the continuity of brittle hydride particles along the radial direction of the cladding tube. Compared to previous metrics, this approach more closely relates to the propensity of a crack to propagate radially through the cladding tube thickness. The RHCP takes into account hydride length, orientation, and connectivity to choose the optimal path for crack propagation through the cladding thickness. The RHCP can therefore be more closely linked to hydride embrittlement of the Zr alloy material, thus creating a relationship between material structure, properties, and performance. The new definition, along with previously proposed metrics such as the Radial Hydride Fraction (RHF), the Hydride Continuity Coefficient (HCC), and the Radial Hydride Continuity Factor (RHCF), have been implemented and automated in MATLAB. These codes are made available with this publication as supplementary materials. These metrics were verified by comparing their predictions of hydride morphology against expected values in simple cases, and the implementation of the new metric was validated by comparing its predictions with manual measurements of hydride microstructure performed on ImageJ. The RHCP was also validated against experimental measurements of fracture behavior and it was shown to correlate with cladding failure better than previous metrics. The information provided by these metrics will help accurately assess cladding integrity during operation, transportation, and storage.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

The Elevated-Temperature Cyclic Properties of Alloy 316L Manufactured Using Powder Metallurgy Hot Isostatic Pressing

According to developers at the GAIN 2019 microreactors workshop, advanced manufacturing (AM) is needed to fabricate microreactor components. A methodology has not been established to qualify AM for elevated-temperature nuclear construction. A potential approach is to use the wrought design methodology by establishing the AM properties as equivalent to or better than wrought. This investigation aims to understand the relationship between powder metallurgy hot isostatic pressing (PM HIP) and material characteristics for Alloy 316L as they relate to elevated-temperature component design and construction. The elevated-temperature cyclic behavior of Alloy 316L manufactured by PM HIP differs from wrought. Of particular significance is the reduced number of cycles to failure for the PM HIP Alloy 316L compared to wrought. Additional work to identify the microstructural feature that control the elevated-temperature cyclic behavior is needed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Review of the Serrated-Flow Phenomenon and Its Role in the Deformation Behavior of High-Entropy Alloys

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are a novel class of alloys that have many desirable properties. The serrated flow that occurs in high-entropy alloys during mechanical deformation is an important phenomenon since it can lead to significant changes in the microstructure of the alloy. In this article, we review the recent findings on the serration behavior in a variety of high-entropy alloys. Relationships among the serrated flow behavior, composition, microstructure, and testing condition are explored. Importantly, the mechanical-testing type (compression/tension), testing temperature, applied strain rate, and serration type for certain high-entropy alloys are summarized. The literature reveals that the serrated flow can be affected by experimental conditions such as the strain rate and test temperature. Furthermore, this type of phenomenon has been successfully modeled and analyzed, using several different types of analytical methods, including the mean-field theory formalism and the complexity-analysis technique. Importantly, the results of the analyses show that the serrated flow in HEAs consists of complex dynamical behavior. It is anticipated that this review will provide some useful and clarifying information regarding the serrated-flow mechanisms in this material system. Finally, suggestions for future research directions in this field are proposed, such as the effects of irradiation, additives (such as C and Al), the presence of nanoparticles, and twinning on the serrated flow behavior in HEAs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Epitaxial nanotwinned metals and alloys: synthesis-twin structure–property relations

Extensive studies have been performed to understand the structure–property relationship in nanotwinned (NT) metals, where the average twin thickness or twin spacing is less than 100 nm. NT metals may have high strength, ductility, good electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance and have promising applications in microelectronics, structural materials and coatings for gas and oil industry. Most prior studies focus on the computational and experimental investigations of NT metals with low stacking fault energy (SFE) and often in polycrystalline forms. In this highlight, we review recent findings on epitaxial growth of NT metals and alloys with low and high SFEs deposited on single crystal substrates, and focus primarily on advancing our comprehension towards tailoring the microstructures and properties of NT metals via extrinsic factors, including the synthesis technique, parametric control and growth template, and intrinsic factors, such as SFE and thermodynamic, kinetic alloying effects. The review intends to illuminate how to synthesize and design epitaxial NT structures to achieve desirable properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Creep Deformation and Damage Mechanisms in an Advanced High-Temperature Additively Manufactured Nickel-Base Superalloy

Abstract This research investigates the processing–structure–properties–performance relationship in a novel nickel-base superalloy, ABD ® -900AM, designed for extreme environments. Specifically tailored for additive manufacturing (AM), ABD ® -900AM maintains mechanical integrity at high temperatures and is comparable to other nickel-based superalloys with a 30–40% gamma-prime volume fraction. A comprehensive study was conducted using laser-beam powder bed fusion and electron-beam powder bed fusion methods. Factors such as heat treatment, porosity, build orientation, and hot isostatic pressing were evaluated to understand their effects on microstructure and mechanical performance. Microstructural characterization revealed significant differences in grain size and orientation across build processes and heat treatments. High-temperature mechanical testing indicated that grain size, heat treatment, and orientation significantly influence creep behavior. A super-solvus heat treatment led to recrystallization and grain growth, significantly improving creep properties compared to a near-solvus heat treatment. Various creep mechanisms were identified across different conditions, and creep rupture models were developed for each build process. Post-test microstructural analysis showed grain boundary damage, with differences in creep cavitation morphology under varying stress conditions. It was shown that MC carbides grow at the expense of gamma-prime near grain boundaries, leading to precipitate-free zones in specimens tested at higher temperatures. This study fills a significant gap in fundamental research by offering a deeper insight into the high-temperature mechanical behavior of additively manufactured nickel-base superalloys. It also explores critical research questions regarding the role of carbides and the significance of heat treatment. The insights gained enhance confidence in the industry adoption of ABD ® -900AM and similar alloys for high-temperature applications, bridging the knowledge gap and supporting the development of reliable AM processes for extreme environments.

Bridges, Alex (ORCID:000000030338759X)↗
DOE OSTI2021

Structure-property relationships and mobility optimization in sputtered La-doped BaSn O 3 films: Toward 100cm 2 V -1 s -1

he wide band gap semiconducting perovskite BaSnO 3 is of high current interest due to outstanding room temperature mobility at high electron density, fueled by potential applications in oxide, transparent, and power electronics. Due in part to a lack of lattice-matched substrates, BaSnO 3 thin films suffer from high defect densities, however, limiting electron mobility. Additionally, the vast majority of BaSnO 3 thin film research has focused on pulsed laser deposition or molecular beam epitaxy. In this work, we present an exhaustive optimization of the mobility of Ba 0.98 La 0.02 SnO 3 films grown by a scalable, high-throughput method: high-pressure-oxygen sputter deposition. Considering target synthesis conditions, substrate selection, buffer layer structure, deposition temperature, deposition rate, thickness, and postdeposition annealing conditions, and by combining high-resolution x-ray diffraction, reciprocal space mapping, rocking curve analysis, scanning transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and temperature-dependent electronic transport measurements, detailed understanding of synthesis-structure-property relationships is attained. Optimized room temperature mobility of 96 cm 2 V –1 s –1 is achieved in vacuum-annealed GdScO 3 (110)/BaSnO 3 (120 nm)/Ba 0.98 La 0.02 SnO 3 (200 nm) heterostructures, as well as 92 cm 2 V –1 s –1 on unbuffered substrates and 87 2 V –1 s –1 without postdeposition annealing. These results, including important trends in defect densities and a surprising dependence of mobility on lattice mismatch, substantially expand the understanding of the interplay between deposition conditions, microstructure, and transport in doped BaSnO 3 films, establishing competitive mobilities in films fabricated via a scalable, high-throughput, industry-standard technique.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Interplay of microbial communities with mineral environments in coralline algae

Coralline algae are worldwide carbonate builders, considered to be foundational species and biodiversity hotspots. Coralline habitats face increasing pressure from human activities and effects related to Global Change, yet their ecological properties and adaptive responses remain poorly understood. The relationships of the algal microbiota with the mineral bioconstructions, as well as plasticity and resilience of coralline holobionts in a changing environment, are of particular interest. In the Gulf of California, Neogoniolithon trichotomum (Rhodophyta) is the main carbonate builder in tidal pools. We performed a multi-disciplinary assessment of the N. trichotomum microstructure using XRD, SEM microscopy and SR-FTIR spectromicroscopy. In the algal perithallus, magnesium-calcite and aragonite were spatially segregated and embedded in a polysaccharide matrix (rich in sulfated polysaccharides). Mg-calcites (18-19 mol% Mg) were the main mineral components of the thallus overall, followed by iron carbonates related to dolomite (ankerite) and siderite. Minerals of late evaporitic sequences (sylvite and bischofite) were also present, suggesting potential halophilic microenvironments within the algal thalli. The diverse set of abundant halophilic, halotolerant and oligotrophic taxa, whose abundance increase in the summer, further suggests this condition. We created an integrated model, based on environmental parameters and the microbiota distribution, that identified temperature and nutrient availability (particularly nitrate and silicate) as the main parameters related to specific taxa patterns. Among these, Hahella, Granulossicoccus, Ferrimonas, Spongiibacteraceae and cyanobacterial Xenococcaceae and Nostocaceae change significantly between seasons. These bacterial components might play relevant roles in algal plasticity and adaptive responses to a changing environment. This study contributes to the understanding of the interplay of the prokaryotic microbiota with the mineral microenvironments of coralline algae. Because of their carbonates with potential resistance to dissolution in a higher pCO 2 world and their seasonally dynamic bacteria, coralline algae are relevant targets to study coastal resilience and carbonated systems responses to changing environments.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

High hardness and oxidation-resistant Cr-containing medium entropy ZrTaW diboride

This study reports the successful synthesis of a Cr-containing (Zr 0.30 Ta 0.34 Cr 0.06 W 0.30 )B 2 medium-entropy boride (MEB) via an in-situ reactive borothermal reduction route from oxide precursors. High-energy ball milling was employed to homogenize the precursor mixture prior to reactive densification. X-ray diffraction confirmed the formation of a predominantly AlB₂-type hexagonal diboride structure together with a secondary (W X , M 1-X )B monoboride phase. Microstructural characterization revealed compositional heterogeneity and localized W-rich regions associated with the secondary phase. The synthesized medium-entropy boride exhibited enhanced mechanical properties, which are attributed to lattice distortion and solid-solution strengthening effects. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed complex multistage oxidation behavior, and the oxidation resistance was compared with conventional ultra-high-temperature diborides. The results demonstrate the strong relationship between oxide-derived processing, compositional complexity, phase evolution, and oxidation behavior, highlighting the potential of medium-entropy borides for high-temperature structural applications

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Nondestructive Photo-Cross-Linking of Microphase-Separated Diblock Polymers through Coumarin Dimerization

The effect of long-wavelength ultraviolet photocrosslinking on microphase-separated coumarin-containing block polymers was studied by photo-rheometry and small-angle X-ray scattering. This model system consisted of three photocrosslinkable diblock polymers of poly(methoxyethyl acrylate)-b-poly(hexyl methacrylate-co-coumarin methacrylate) with different volume fractions of the crosslinkable coumarin-containing block, which microphase separated into lamellar and cylindrical morphologies. All polymers stiffened upon exposure to 365 nm light, with much greater relative increases in moduli recorded for lamellae-forming polymers (ca. 3200% increase) compared to the cylinder-forming polymer (ca. 550% increase). Disordering transitions that were evident in uncrosslinked samples were no longer observed after crosslinking in the ordered state, and domain sizes were found to remain stable to heating. The photocrosslinking reaction only proceeded under active irradiation, indicating a high degree of spatiotemporal control over curing in this system. Finally, at constant concentration of couamarin within the crosslinkable block, the cure rate was largely independent of polymer composition, suggesting a constant local concentration of coumarin moieties within the segregated crosslinkable domains. Lastly, these findings establish a set of specific structure-property relationships governing the phase-selective photocrosslinking of diblock polymers that can guide the design of robust nanostructured materials.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2020

Exploring the relationship between solvent-assisted ball milling, particle size, and sintering temperature in garnet-type solid electrolytes

Garnet-type solid electrolytes, such as Li 6.4 La 3 Zr 1.4 Ta 0.6 O 12 (LLZTO), are promising materials for solid-state batteries, but processing remains a challenge, in part due to the high sintering temperature required for densification. Additionally, this temperature can be lowered by decreasing the initial particle size via solvent-assisted ball milling, but the relationship between solvent choice, particle properties, sintering behavior, and ionic conductivity is not well understood. In this work, we systematically explore these parameters, showing that milling in commonly used protic solvents, such as alcohols, effectively decreases the particle size but results in lithium loss (through Li + /H + exchange) that leads to poor sintering. By contrast, milling in aprotic solvents with surfactant reduces the particle size to ~220 nm without lithium loss, enabling the fabrication of dense samples (5.1 g/cm 3 ) with good ionic conductivity (0.43 mS/cm at 25 °C) at a lower sintering temperature (1000 °C). We compare ionic conductivities and activation energies for samples prepared with different particle sizes and sintering temperatures and use multiphase-field simulations to identify the mass transport and microstructural mechanisms responsible for the observed sintering dependence on particle size. These results further clarify the relationship between processing parameters and performance and represent important progress toward overcoming fabrication challenges for these materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Enhancing the multi-functional properties of renewable lignin carbon fibers via defining the structure–property relationship using different biomass feedstocks

Lignin has been explored extensively as a renewable precursor for carbon materials, considering its abundance as a major component of plant cell walls and its sustainability as a byproduct of both lignocellulosic biorefinery and the paper-making industry. Despite the extensive efforts to define the process–property relationship, it remains largely unknown how lignin biosynthesis and its chemistry would impact the resultant carbon fiber properties, for both mechanical and electroconductive performances. Such inadequate understanding fundamentally limits feedstock design and selection to improve carbon fiber properties toward broader commercial applications. Using lignin from a broad range of biomass feedstocks for carbon fiber manufacturing, we have fundamentally explored the structure–function relationship between lignin chemistry and carbon fiber performance. Specifically, lignin extracted from hardwood (sugar maple), softwood (loblolly pine and red cedar), and herbaceous plants (corn stover and switchgrass) was used for carbon fiber manufacturing, considering the very different lignin structures from these feedstocks. Linear regression models were established to define the relationship between carbon fiber mechanical properties and lignin structural characteristics. The results highlighted that the content of β-O-4 linkages correlates significantly with the tensile strength and elastic modulus of lignin carbon fibers, indicating that more linear β-O-4 linkages would promote the carbon fiber mechanical performance. Moreover, electroconductive properties are essential for broader energy device application of lignin-based carbon fibers, yet the mechanisms controlling their electroconductivity are largely unknown. Furthermore, we hereby demonstrated that a higher β-O-4 content also promotes the electroconductivity of lignin carbon fibers. Microstructure analysis further revealed that the crystallite size and content of the pre-graphitic turbostratic carbon structure in lignin-based carbon fibers were enhanced as the β-O-4 linkages increased. The content of β-O-4 linkages has shown a strong correlation with the crystallite content in a linear regression model. This study thus revealed the underlying mechanisms regarding how the lignin structure in planta defines the resultant carbon fiber properties. Moreover, the study also highlighted the correlation between the mechanical and electroconductive properties of lignin-based carbon fibers, both of which were defined by the lignin structure.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Solidification and crystallographic texture modeling of laser powder bed fusion Ti-6Al-4V using finite difference-monte carlo method

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufacturing makes near-net-shaped parts with reduced material cost and time, rising as a promising technology to fabricate Ti-6Al-4V, a widely used titanium alloy in aerospace and medical industries. However, LPBF Ti-6Al-4V parts produced with 67° rotation between layers, a scan strategy commonly used to reduce microstructure and property inhomogeneity, have varying grain morphologies and weak crystallographic textures that change depending on processing parameters. Here, this study predicts LPBF Ti-6Al-4V solidification at three energy levels using a finite difference-Monte Carlo method and validates the simulations with large-area electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) scans. The developed model accurately shows that a <001> texture forms at low energy and a <111> texture occurs at higher energies parallel to the build direction but with a lower strength than the textures observed from EBSD. A validated and well-established method of combining spatial correlation and general spherical harmonics representation of texture is developed to calculate a difference score between simulations and experiments. The quantitative comparison enables effective fine-tuning of nucleation density (N 0 ) input, which shows a nonlinear relationship with increasing energy level. Future improvements in texture prediction code and a more comprehensive study of N 0 with different energy levels will further advance the optimization of LPBF Ti-6Al-4V components. These developments contribute a novel understanding of crystallographic texture formation in LPBF Ti-6Al-4V, the development of robust model validation and calibration pipeline methodologies, and provide a platform for mechanical property prediction and process parameter optimization.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Protective coatings with nanoscale multilayer architecture: current state and main trends

Binary systems (layers) and multicomponent layers with bilayer thicknesses varying from microns to a few nanometers are considered. A strong dependence of the microstructure formation on the deposition conditions (the magnitude of the bias potential, the flow of inert and reactive gases, the ion beam power (current density) supplied to the target) is found. General regularities in the change in the functional properties and structural state of the coatings are formulated. The conditions for the formation of a columnar structure and growth texture are noted; various mechanisms and their interpretation are proposed. Finally, the relationship among the size of nanograins, diffusion at the interphase boundary, and effects determining the physico-mechanical, tribological characteristics, as well as resistance to corrosion and oxidation, is shown.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Decarburization and Carburization Behavior of Grade 91 Steel in Sodium Environments

Two heats of G91 steel have been investigated in sodium at 550-650°C to understand its corrosion behaviour, microstructural evolution, and tensile properties. Sodium exposure tests of subsized tensile and coupon specimens of G91 base metal and weldment were conducted in Argonne’s forced convection sodium materials testing loops. Maximum exposure times of ~39,000 h at 550°C, ~37,000 h at 600°C, and ~20,000 h at 650°C have been achieved, respectively. Thermal aging experiments of G91 steel were conducted in parallel, and the data of the sodium-exposed specimens were compared with the thermal aging data of the same heat to isolate the thermal aging effect from the effect of sodium exposure. It was found that the tensile strength of G91 steel can be reduced by more than 50% after sodium exposures at 650°C. The effect of a sodium environment on tensile properties is largely dependent on the carburization/decarburization behavior of G91 steel exposed to sodium. The carbon concentrations in sodium in Argonne’s SMT-1 and SMT-2 loops were determined by the equilibration method. The carbon activity in sodium was established by equilibrating high-purity nickel in sodium, analyzing the material for carbon, and using the reported data on the carbon solubility for this material. The carbon activity results were combined with the carbon solubility data in sodium to establish the carbon concentration in sodium. The carbon concentrations in the SMT-1 and SMT-2 loop were estimated to be 1.23 and 0.25 ppm, respectively. With this initial success, we will continue to monitor the carbon contents in the two loops to correlate the microstructural and mechanical property changes with the sodium purity. Future experiments will also consider sodium exposure tests in controlled carbon activities. Online monitoring and control of carbon contents in sodium in nuclear reactors would also be of interest. Thermodynamic analysis was conducted to understand the carburization-decarburization behavior of G91 steel exposed to sodium in the SMT-1 and SMT-2 loops. The equilibrium carbon activity in the alloy was evaluated by the thermodynamics of M 23 C 6 carbides. The calculated carburization-decarburization boundary showed that G91 would undergo decarburization at 650°C in the SMT-1 loop and carburization at 600°C in the SMT-2 loop, which is consistent with our findings from the sodium exposure tests. Future work will include thermodynamic analysis of the carbon concentration – activity relationship including the effect of carbide-forming elements, vanadium and niobium in G91 steel. Kinetics of carbon diffusion and the effect on microstructure and mechanical performance under various service conditions will also be investigated. The ultimate goal is to understand the mechanisms and the kinetics of carbon transfer in the sodium-steel system and to provide a basis for predicting the effect of long-term decarburization-carburization process on the integrity of reactor components.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Towards data-driven constitutive modelling for granular materials via micromechanics-informed deep learning

The analytical description of path-dependent elastic-plastic responses of a granular system is highly complicated because of continuously evolving microstructures and strain localisation within the system undergoing deformation. This study offers an alternative to the current analytical paradigm by developing micromechanics-informed machine-learning based constitutive modelling approaches for granular materials. A set of critical variables associated with the constitutive behaviour of granular materials are identified through an incremental stress-strain relationship analysis. Depending on the strategy to exploit the priori micromechanical knowledge, three different training strategies are explored. The first model uses only the measurable external variables to make stress predictions; the second model utilises a directed graph to link all the external strain sequences and internal microstructural evolution variables into a single prediction model comprised of a series of sub-mappings, and the third model explicitly integrates the physically important non-temporal properties with external strain paths into training through an enhanced Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU). These three models show satisfactory agreement with unseen test specimens based on multi-directional loading cases. The basic features and potential applications of each model are explained. Lastly, the key factors for constitutive training and limitations of the current work are also discussed in detail.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Formation of the {gamma}ʹʹʹ-Ni2(Cr, Mo, W) phase during a two-step aging heat treatment in HAYNES® 244® Alloy

Precipitation hardening is the dominant method of achieving high strength in most Ni-based superalloys. The formation of nanoscale precipitates during thermal exposure is often studied to determine the optimal methods of attaining high strength. The commercial Ni-based superalloy, HAYNES® 244® alloy, is strengthened through a novel -Ni2(Cr, Mo, W) intermetallic phase that forms during a two-step aging cycle. The precipitation kinetics of this intermetallic phase are sluggish for single-step aging in comparison to the γʹ phase in precipitation-strengthened Ni-based alloys, but a two-step aging treatment has shown to reliably harden the alloy and improve high-temperature properties compared to a single-step aging heat treatment. To investigate the formation and coarsening of this phase, heat-treated samples of the 244 alloy were analyzed with high-energy in situ and ex situ X-ray techniques such as small angle X-ray scattering and wide angle X-ray scattering as well as Vickers micro-hardness, electron microscopy, and atom probe tomography. The relationship between hardness, aging parameters, and microstructure evolution is discussed. The enthalpy of formation and precipitate solvus temperature were determined with high-temperature differential scanning calorimetry and dilatometry analysis.

Ni-based Superalloys↗
DOE OSTI2021

Effects of blended cements and carbonation on chloride-induced corrosion propagation

Highlights: • Corrosion propagation of blended cements was investigated for 1 year. • Carbonated and non‑carbonated mortars were evaluated. • Galvanostatic pulse and ER sensors were used to monitor corrosion. • Mortar properties were correlated with corrosion rates and corrosion damage. • Relationships between mortar properties and corrosion behaviour were established. Supplementary cementitious materials are known to refine the pore structure of concrete and accelerate the carbonation progress. The combination of the two processes can have both beneficial and disadvantageous effects on corrosion, especially when chlorides are also involved. In this study the corrosion properties of multiple blended cements were evaluated in carbonated and non‑carbonated states, with chlorides introduced through cyclic ponding. The examination involved monitoring the propagation phase, determining the microstructural properties of cements, and assessing the final corrosion damage. The results showed that the steel in the blended cements initially had a relatively high corrosion activity, which later decreased compared to the OPC. This stabilisation was presumably due to the beneficial changes to the pore structure. Carbonation had a significant impact on the corrosion, with carbonated mortars revealing shallower damage over a larger surface area. This effect was more pronounced for blended cements that exhibited greater susceptibility to carbonation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗