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NASA NTRS1992

The composition of Martian aeolian sands: Thermal emissivity from Viking IRTM observations

Aeolian sands provide excellent surfaces for the remote determination of the mineralogic composition of Martian materials, because such deposits consist of relatively well-sorted, uniform particle sizes and might consist of chemically unaltered, primary mineral grains derived from bedrock. Dark features on the floors of Martian craters are controlled by aeolian processes and many consist largely of unconsolidated, windblown sand. Measurement of the thermal emissivity of geologic materials provides a way to identify mid-infrared absorption bands, the strength and positions of which vary with mineral structure and composition. The Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM) had four surface-sensing mid-IR bands, three of which, the 7, 9, and 11 micron channels, correspond to absorption features characteristic of carbonates, sialic, and mafic minerals, respectively. In this study, the highest quality IRTM data were constrained so as to avoid the effects of atmospheric dust, clouds, surface frosts, and particle size variations (the latter using data obtained between 7 and 9 H, and they were selected for dark intracrater features such that only data taken directly from the dark feature were used, so as to avoid thermal contributions from adjacent but unrelated materials. Three-point emissivity spectra of Martian dart intracrater features were compared with laboratory emission spectra of minerals and terrestrial aeolian sands convolved using the IRTM response function to the four IRTM spectral channels.

Edgett, Kenneth S.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Characterization of Martian near-subsurface materials by determination of cohesion and angle of internal friction

Back-analysis (reconstruction) of the stability of thirty avalanche chutes was performed in the very limited areas where high resolution imaging overlapped with available 1:500 K topographic map coverage. A new technique was developed to incorporate the third dimension (width) of an avalanche chute in stability back-analysis in order to yield unambiguous values of cohesion and angle of internal friction. The procedure is based upon extending the ordinary method of slices to three dimensions, in order to construct avalanche chute cross-sections whose widths and depths vary as a function of gradient, gravity, density of material, and phi and c. Applying the technique to the well documented slide at Lodalen, Norway as a test produces excellent correspondence with reality. Generally, the technique reveals that the width:depth ratio of any avalanche chute decreases with increasing contrast between the average slope angle and the angle of internal friction. Applying this technique to the martian avalanche chute yields results consistent with indications from earlier work, but with greater certainty. Values of cohesion and angle of internal friction identify the materials at the time of failure as moderately cohesive debris. If Sharp's identification of these features as avalanche chutes is correct, then the results here imply that weathering processes have had a significant effect to depths of tens of meters (where failure has occured) below the martian surface. It is also implied that on relatively steep slopes within Valles Marineris, sizable, unaltered, unmantled bedrock exposures for high resolution spectral and spatial scanning by Mars Observer may be scarce.

Sullivan, R. J.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Foundation, excavation and radiation shielding concepts for a 16-m large lunar telescope

NASA is considering a 16-m diameter optical telescope on the moon as a part of the Space Exploration Initiative. Fundamental concepts of engineering activities on the moon and how they can be applied to the establishment of a 16-m large lunar telescope (LLT) are discussed. These fundamental concepts include the engineering response of lunar soils and how they affect construction activities, namely, drilling, blasting, ripping, digging and compaction. A mirror support structure and foundation design concept is proposed. The foundation considered is a multiple contact points spud-can type footing. It does not appear that a deep foundation or the presence of bedrock is required to achieve the telescope foundation stiffness. The LLT system will include a regolith covered housing, the size of a small room, which will contain sensitive electronic equipment including charge coupled devices which need protection from cosmic radiation effects. A brief discussion is made on radiation, radiation transport and radiation effects on electronics and on humans. Radiation protection techniques and the different emplacement schemes for the LLT instrument housing for radiation protection are suggested. A structural concept of an early lunar based telescope is also presented.

Chua, Koon M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Venusian impact basins and cratered terrains

The consensus regarding interpretation of Magellan radar imagery assigns Venus a young volcanic surface subjected in many areas to moderate crustal shortening. I infer that, on the contrary, ancient densely cratered terrain and large impact basins may be preserved over more than half the planet and that crustal shortening has been much overestimated. I see wind erosion and deposition as far more effective in modifying old structures. Integration with lunar chronology suggests that most of the surface of Venus may be older than 3.0 Ga and much may be older than 3.8 Ga. Broad volcanos, hug volcanic domes, plains preserving lobate flow patterns, and numerous lesser volcanic features, pocked sparsely by impact craters, are indeed obvious on Magellan imagery. Some of these postvolcanic impact craters have been slightly extended, but only a small portion has been flooded by still younger lavas. Relative ages of the young craters are indicated by the varying eolian removal of their forms and ejecta blankets and flow lobes, and the oldest are much subdued. If these young impact craters, maximum diameter 275 km, include all preserved impact structures, then their quantity and distribution indicate that Venus was largely resurfaced by volcanism approx. 0.5 Ga, subsequent eruptions having been at a much reduced rate. Away from the approx. 0.5 Ga volcanic features, much of Venus is, however, dominated by circular and subcircular features, 50-2000 km in diameter, many of them multiring, that may be mostly older impact and impact-melt structures substantially modified by wind action. Eolian erosion scoured to bedrock old ridges and uplands, including those that may be cratered terrains and the rims and outer-ring depressions of large impact basins, and removed all surficial deposits to the limits of resolution of the imagery. The complementary eolian deposits form not only dunes, wind streaks, and small plains, but also broad radar-dark plains, commonly assumed to be volcanic although lacking flow morphology, whose materials appear to be thick because they are smoothly compacted into buried craters.

Hamilton, Warren B.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Ordovician impacts at sea in Baltoscandia

Northern Europe has an assemblage of Ordovician probable impacts that is exceptional because the structures involved are relatively old yet well preserved because they formed at sea and because they formed within a restricted geological time in a relatively small area. The Tvaren, Kardla, and Lockne structures might not be strictly contemporaneous but all formed near the beginning of the Caradoc Age (about 460 Ma), whereas the Granby structure is about 20 Ma older. The range of diameters is from about 2 km (Tvaren, Granby) to 8 km (Lockne). The stratigraphic succession formed on impact at sea, as uniformly documented by these structures, begins with a breccia lens consisting of basement rocks that are intensely crushed. Owing to expulsion of sea water by the impact, this breccia formed under essentially dry conditions. Later on this breccia was in part hydrothermally altered. It is overlain by backsurge turbidite that formed from fragments of local sedimentary bedrock and crystalline basement when the sea water returned to the crater site. Either the turbidite is simply a Bouma sequence (although quite thick - as much as over 50 m) from very coarse rubble to mud, or it is more complex. After deposition of the backsurge turbidite, or turbidite complex, the craters still remained as 150-200-m-deep holes in the sea bed. Together with the presence of relatively shallow water over the rim wall, this situation created predictable hydrologic conditions for extended histories of sedimentation and biological development at the crater as well as within it. The presence of a concentration of craters within a limited area of well-preserved and accessible Ordovician deposits raises a question about the Ordovician, especially its middle portion, as potentially an age of relatively intense impact activity even in wider areas. In this connection it may be apposite to mention that the only fossil stony meteorites so far recorded in rocks are from the late Early and the Middle Ordovician.

Lindstroem, M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Sudbury Breccia and suevite as glacial indicators transported 800 km to Kentland Astrobleme, Indiana

A glacial erratic whose place of origin is known by direct comparison with bedrock is known as an indicator. In 1971, while visiting the known astrobleme at Kentland, Indiana, Peredery recognized and sampled in the overlying glacial drift deposits a distinctive boulder of Sudbury suevite (black member, Onaping Formation) that normally occurs within the Sudbury Basin as an impact fall-back or wash-in deposit. The rock was sampled (but later mislaid) from a farmer's cairn next to a cleared field. Informal reports of this discovery prompted the other authors to recently reconnoiter the Kentland locality in an attempt to relocate the original boulder. Several breccia blocks were sampled but laboratory examination proved most of these probably to be diamictites from the Precambrian Gowganda Formation, which outcrops extensively in the southern Ontario. However, one sample was confirmed as typical Sudbury Breccia, which outcrops in the country rock surrounding the Sudbury Basin. Thus two glacial indicators were transported by Pleistocene continental glaciers about 820 km over a tightly proscribed path and, curiously, from one astrobleme to another. Brecciated boulders in the Illinois/Indiana till plain are usually ascribed to the Gowganda or Mississagi formations in Ontario. But impact-generated rocks need not be confused. The carbonaceous matrix of the suevite, for example, was sufficiently distinctive to assign it to the upper portion of the black Onaping. The unique and restricted source area of these indicators provide an accurate and reliable control for estimating Pleistocene ice movement.

Mchone, John F.↗

NASA NTRS1992

The lunar environment and its effect on optical astronomy

The Moon's geologic environment features: (1) gravity field one-sixth that of Earth; (2) sidereal rotation period of 27.3 days; (3) surface with greater curvature than Earth's surface (a chord along a 10 km baseline would have a bulge of 7.2 m); (4) seismically and tidally stable platform on which to make astronomical observations (most moonquakes have magnitudes of 1 to 2 on the Richter scale, within the earth's seismic noise, resulting in ground motions only 1 nm); (5) tenuous atmosphere (the total mass at night is only 10(exp 4) kg) that has an optical depth of 10(exp -6) and does not cause wind induced stresses and vibrations on structures; (6) large diurnal temperature variation (100 to 385 K in equatorial regions), which telescopes must be designed to withstand; (7) weak magnetic field, ranging from 3 to 330 x 10(exp -9) T, compared to 3 x 10(exp -5) T on Earth at the equator; (8) surface exposed to radiation, the most dangerous of which are high energy (1 to 100 Mev) particles resulting from solar flares; (9) high flux of micrometeorites which are not slowed down from their cosmic velocities because of the lack of air (data indicate that microcraters greater than 10 microns across will form at the rate of 3000/sq m/yr); (10) regolith 2 to 30 m thick which blankets the entire lunar surface (this layer is fine-grained (average grain sizes range from 40 to 268 microns), has a low density (800 to 1000 kg/cu m in the upper few mm, rising to 1500 to 1800 kg/cu m at depths of 10 to 20 cm), is porous (35 to 45 pct), cohesive (0.1 to 1.0 kN/sq m), and has a low thermal diffusivity (0.7 to 1.0 x 110-8 sq m/sec); about 29 pct of the regolith is less than 20 micron in size (this dust could pose a hazard to optical telescopes); (11) rubbly upper several hundred meters in which intact bedrock is uncommon, especially in the lunar highlands; and (12) craters with diameter-to-depth ratios of 5 if fresh and less than km across (larger and eroded craters have diameter-to-depth ratios greater than 5).

Taylor, G. Jeffrey↗

NASA NTRS1992

Antarctic lakes (above and beneath the ice sheet): Analogues for Mars

The perennial ice covered lakes of the Antarctic are considered to be excellent analogues to lakes that once existed on Mars. Field studies of ice covered lakes, paleolakes, and polar beaches were conducted in the Bunger Hills Oasis, Eastern Antarctica. These studies are extended to the Dry Valleys, Western Antarctica, and the Arctic. Important distinctions were made between ice covered and non-ice covered bodies of water in terms of the geomorphic signatures produced. The most notable landforms produced by ice covered lakes are ice shoved ridges. These features form discrete segmented ramparts of boulders and sediments pushed up along the shores of lakes and/or seas. Sub-ice lakes have been discovered under the Antarctic ice sheet using radio echo sounding. These lakes occur in regions of low surface slope, low surface accumulations, and low ice velocity, and occupy bedrock hollows. The presence of sub-ice lakes below the Martian polar caps is possible. The discovery of the Antarctic sub-ice lakes raises possibilities concerning Martian lakes and exobiology.

Rice, J. W., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Determination of lunar ilmenite abundance from remotely sensed data

Of fundamental importance in the utilization of indigenous resources for a future permanently manned lunar base is the identification and mapping of the abundance distribution of the mineral ilmenite, which is currently considered the most readily identifiable and most easily accessible source of oxygen needed for human consumables and spacecraft propellant. Solid state detector array technology now permits the use of ground based multispectral remote sensing techniques to produce maps with better than one kilometer spatial resolution and uncertainties of about two weight-percent TiO2 abundance. An empirical relationship between the weight-percent abundance of titanium dioxide and the 400/560 nm spectral ratio measured in returned lunar samples was used. Because this abundance correlation is valid only for mature lunar mare regolith, the distribution of immature mafic minerals which were found to be correlated primarily with steep slopes exposing bedrock was qualitatively mapped. The first mapping phase focused on the entire lunar nearside at 5.3 km per pixel, and on experiments with more sensitive spectral ratios. Relative spectrophotometry was employed to aid in identifying wavelengths that provide greater spectral contrast. It was found that the 400/730 nm ratio improved the abundance sensitivity by 37 percent, while the 950/730 nm ratio improved mafic mineral contrast about 100 percent. The second mapping phase utilized a large experimental CCD at 280 m per pixel to map the high titanium regions identified in the phase one mapping. The high resolution maps provide data on the small scale (500 m) variations in abundance and their relationship to morphological units.

Larson, S. M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Chemical transport during formation and alteration of Martian impact and volcanic deposits

Much of the surface of Mars, including volcanic and cratered terrains, probably experienced alteration and degassing processes. These processes may have depleted or enriched many important elements in surface materials, including bedrock, dust, and soils. The composition of the martian soil may represent the best estimate, for some elements, of the average composition of the martian crust, similar to the composition of loess created by glacial action on the Earth. The martian soil may represent the only convenient, globally or regionally averaged sample of the martian crust. In order to understand the composition of the source material for the soil, however, we need to understand the contributions of volcanic vs. impact sources for this material and the chemical fractionations involved in its production. The processes to be addressed include degassing of volcanic deposits, as observed in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes at Katmai, Alaska, and degassing of meltbearing impact ejecta as inferred for suevite ejecta sheets at the Ries Crater, and alteration or palagonitization of volcanic deposits, as documented for volcanos in British Columbia and many other volcanic terrains, and impact crater deposits. The process of palagonitization has been the subject of several studies with reference to Mars, and palagonite is a good analogue for the spectroscopic properties of the martian dust. The role of impact in cratering has not been as well studied, although other researchers have established that both degassing and alteration are common features of impact crater deposits. Other relevant sources of experimental data include the extensive literature on the corrosion of nuclear waste glass and leaching of shocked materials.

Newsom, H. E.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Expert system-based mineral mapping in northern Death Valley, California/Nevada, using the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)

Kruse, F. A.↗

NASA NTRS1992

The mass balance of soil evolution on late Quaternary marine terraces, northern California

Mass-balance interpretation of a soil chronosequence provides a means of quantifying elemental addition, removal, and transformation that occur in soils from a flight of marine terraces in northern California. Six soil profiles that range in age from several to 240,000 yr are developed in unconsolidated, sandy-marine, and eolian parent material deposited on bedrock marine platforms. Soil evolution is dominated by (1) open-system depletion of Si, Ca, Mg, K, and Na; (2) open-system enrichment of P in surface soil horizons; (3) relative immobility of Fe and Al; and (4) transformation of Fe, Si, and Al in the parent material to secondary clay minerals and sesquioxides. Net mass losses of bases and Si are generally uniform with depth and substantial, in some cases approaching 100 percent; however, the rate of loss of each element differs markedly, causing the ranking of each by relative abundance to shift with time. Loss of Si from the sand fraction by dissolution and particle-size diminution, from about 100 percent to less than 35 percent over 240 ky, mirrors a similar gain in the silt and clay size fractions. The Fe originally present in the sand fraction decreases from greater than 80 percent to less than 10 percent, whereas the amount of Fe present in the clay and crystalline oxyhydroxide fractions increases to 25 percent and 70 percent, respectively.

Merritts, Dorothy J.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Compositional and textural information from the dual inversion of visible, near and thermal infrared remotely sensed data

A technique is presented that allows extraction of compositional and textural information from visible, near and thermal infrared remotely sensed data. Using a library of both emissivity and reflectance spectra, endmember abundances and endmember thermal inertias are extracted from AVIRIS (Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer) and TIMS (Thermal Infrared Mapping Spectrometer) data over Lunar Crater Volcanic Field, Nevada, using a dual inversion. The inversion technique is motivated by upcoming Mars Observer data and the need for separation of composition and texture parameters from sub pixel mixtures of bedrock and dust. The model employed offers the opportunity to extract compositional and textural information for a variety of endmembers within a given pixel. Geologic inferences concerning grain size, abundance, and source of endmembers can be made directly from the inverted data. These parameters are of direct relevance to Mars exploration, both for Mars Observer and for follow-on missions.

Brackett, Robert A.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Oxygen isotopes as tracers of tektite source rocks: An example from the Ivory Coast tektites and Lake Bosumtwi Crater

Oxygen isotope studies of tektites and impact glasses provide an important tool to help in identifying the target lithologies for terrestrial impacts, including the K-T boundary impact. However, such studies may be complicated by modification of the original oxygen isotope values of some source rocks during the tektite formation process either by vapor fractionation or incorporation of meteoric water. To further investigate the relationship between the oxygen isotopic composition of tektites and their source rocks, Ivory Coast tektites and samples of impact glasses and bedrock lithologies from the Bosumtwi Crater in Ghana--which is widely believed to be the source crater for the Ivory Coast tektites--were studied. Our preliminary results suggest that the phyllites and metagraywackes from the Bosumtwi Crater were the predominant source materials for the impact glasses and tektites and that no significant oxygen isotope modification (less than 1 percent delta(O-18)) took place during impact melting. This contrasts with previous studies of moldavites and Australasian tektites and their sedimentary source materials which suggests a 4 to 5 percent lowering of delta(O-18) due to meteoric water incorporation during impact melting.

Blum, Joel D.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Spectral evidence of size dependent space weathering processes on asteroid surfaces

Most compositional characterizations of the minor planets are derived from analysis of visible and near-infrared reflectance spectra. However, such spectra are derived from light which has only interacted with a very thin surface layer. Although regolith processes are assumed to mix all near-surface lithologic units into this layer, it has been proposed that space weathering processes can alter this surface layer to obscure the spectral signature of the bedrock lithology. It has been proposed that these spectral alteration processes are much less pronounced on asteroid surfaces than on the lunar surface, but the possibility of major spectral alteration of asteroidal optical surfaces has been invoked to reconcile S-asteroids with ordinary chondrites. The reflectance spectra of a large subset of the S-asteroid population have been analyzed in a systematic investigation of the mineralogical diversity within the S-class. In this sample, absorption band depth is a strong function of asteroid diameter. The S-asteroid band depths are relatively constant for objects larger than 100 km and increase linearly by factor of two toward smaller sizes (approximately 40 km). Although the S-asteroid surface materials includes a diverse variety of silicate assemblages, ranging from dunites to basalts, all compositional subtypes of the S-asteroids conform to this trend. The A-, R-, and V-type asteroids which are primarily silicate assemblages (as opposed to the metal-silicate mixtures of most S-asteroids) follow a parallel but displaced trend. Some sort of textural or regolith equilibrium appears to have been attained in the optical surfaces of asteroids larger than about 100 km diameter but not on bodies below this size. The relationships between absorption band depth, spectral slope, surface albedo and body size provide an intriguing insight into the nature of the optical surfaces of the S-asteroids and space weathering on these objects.

Gaffey, M. J.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Galileo SSI lunar observations: Copernican craters and soils

The Galileo spacecraft completed its first Earth-Moon flyby (EMI) in December 1990 and its second flyby (EM2) in December 1992. Copernican-age craters are among the most prominent features seen in the SSI (Solid-State Imaging) multispectral images of the Moon. The interiors, rays, and continuous ejecta deposits of these youngest craters stand out as the brightest features in images of albedo and visible/1-micron color ratios (except where impact melts are abundant). Crater colors and albedos (away from impact melts) are correlated with their geologic emplacement ages as determined from counts of superposed craters; these age-color relations can be used to estimate the emplacement age (time since impact event) for many Copernican-age craters on the near and far sides of the Moon. The spectral reflectivities of lunar soils are controlled primarily by (1) soil maturity, resulting from the soil's cumulative age of exposure to the space environment; (2) steady-state horizontal and vertical mixing of fresh crystalline materials ; and (3) the mineralogy of the underlying bedrock or megaregolith. Improved understanding of items (1) and (2) above will improve our ability to interpret item (3), especially for the use of crater compositions as probes of crustal stratigraphy. We have examined the multispectral and superposed crater frequencies of large isolated craters, mostly of Eratosthenian and Copernican ages, to avoid complications due to (1) secondaries (as they affect superposed crater counts) and (2) spatially and temporally nonuniform regolith mixing from younger, large, and nearby impacts. Crater counts are available for 11 mare craters and 9 highlands craters within the region of the Moon imaged during EM1. The EM2 coverage provides multispectral data for 10 additional craters with superposed crater counts. Also, the EM2 data provide improved spatial resolution and signal-to-noise ratios over the western nearside.

Mcewen, A. S.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Expert system-based mineral mapping using AVIRIS

Integrated analysis of imaging spectrometer data and field spectral measurements were used in conjunction with conventional geologic field mapping to characterize bedrock and surficial geology at the northern end of Death Valley, California and Nevada. A knowledge-based expert system was used to automatically produce image maps from Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data showing the principal surface mineralogy. The imaging spectrometer data show the spatial distribution of spectrally distinct minerals occurring both as primary rock-forming minerals and as alteration and weathering products. Field spectral measurements were used to verify the mineral maps and field mapping was used to extend the remote sensing results. Geographically referenced image-maps produced from these data form new base maps from which to develop improved understanding of the processes of deposition and erosion affecting the present land surface. The 'northern Grapevine Mountains' (NGM) study area was reported on in numerous papers. This area is an unnamed northwestward extension of the range. Most of the research here has concentrated on mapping of Jurassic-age plutons and associated hydrothermal alteration, however, the nature and scope of these studies is much broader, pertaining to the geologic history and development of the entire Death Valley region. AVIRIS data for the NGM site were obtained during May 1989. Additional AVIRIS data were acquired during September 1989 as part of the Geologic Remote Sensing Field Experiment (GRSFE). The area covered by these data overlaps slightly with the May 1989 data. Three and one-half AVIRIS scenes total were analyzed.

Kruse, Fred A.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Gravity investigation of the Manson impact structure, Iowa

The Manson crater, of probable Cretaceous/Tertiary age, is located in northwestern Iowa (center at 42 deg. 34.44 min N; 94 deg. 33.60 min W). A seismic reflection profile along an east west line across the crater and drill hole data indicate a crater about 35 km in diameter having the classic form for an impact crater, an uplifted central peak composed of uplifted Proterozoic crystalline bedrock, surrounded by a 'moat' filled with impact produced breccia and a ring graben zone composed of tilted fault blocks of the Proterozoic and Paleozoic country rocks. The structure has been significantly eroded. This geologic structure would be expected to produce a significant gravity signature and study of that signature would shed additional light on the details of the crater structure. A gravity study was undertaken to better resolve the crustal structure. The regional Bouguer gravity field is characterized by a southeastward decreasing field. To first order, the Bouguer gravity field can be understood in the context of the geology of the Precambrian basement. The high gravity at the southeast corner is associated with the mid-continent gravity high; the adjacent low to the northwest results from a basin containing low-density clastic sediments shed from the basement high. Modeling of a simple basin and adjacent high predicts much of the observed Bouguer gravity signature. A gravity signature due to structure associated with the Manson impact is not apparent in the Bouguer data. To resolve the gravity signature of the impact, a series of polynomial surfaces were fit to the Bouguer gravity field to isolate the small wavelength residual anomalies. The residual gravity obtained after subtracting a 5th- or 6th-order polynomial seems to remove most of the regional effects and isolate local anomalies. The pattern resolved in the residual gravity is one of a gravity high surrounded by gravity lows and in turn surrounded by isolated gravity highs. The central portion of the crater is characterized by two positive anomalies having amplitudes of about plus 4 mGal separated by a gentle saddle located approximately at the crater center.

Plescia, J. B.↗