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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

State Strategies to Bring Solar to Low- and Moderate-Income Communities

This Final Technical Report describes the goals, objectives, activities, results, and accomplishments of the State Strategies to Bring Solar to Low- and Moderate-Income Communities Project, managed by the Clean Energy States Alliance. This project enabled five states (Connecticut, Minnesota, New Mexico, Oregon, and Rhode Island) and the District of Columbia to develop and implement strategies for expanding market penetration of solar PV among LMI residents and communities. The project disseminated successful strategies and lessons learned from those states to other states and stakeholders across the country.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Evaluating the impact of wildfire smoke on solar photovoltaic production

There are growing needs to understand how extreme weather events impact the electrical grid. Renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaics are expanding in use to help sustainably meet electricity demands. Wildfires and, notably, the widespread smoke resulting from them, are one such extreme event that can impair the performance of solar photovoltaics. However, isolating the impact that smoke has on photovoltaic energy production, separate from ambient conditions, can be difficult. In this work, we seek to understand and quantify the impacts of wildfire smoke on solar photovoltaic production within the Western United States. Our analysis focuses on the construction of a random forest regression model to predict overall solar photovoltaic production. The model is used to separate and quantify the impacts of wildfire smoke in particular. To do so, we fuse historical weather, solar photovoltaic energy production, and PM2.5 particulate matter (primary smoke pollutant) data to train and test our model. The additional weather data allows us to capture interactions between wildfire smoke and other ambient conditions, as well as to create a more powerful predictive model capable of better quantifying the impacts of wildfire smoke on its own. We find that solar PV energy production decreases 8.3% on average during high smoke days at PV sites as compared to similar conditions without smoke present. Finally, this work allows us to improve our understanding of the potential impact on photovoltaic-based energy production estimates due to wildfire events and can help inform grid and operational planning as solar photovoltaic penetration levels continue to grow.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Power Supply Options for the Marpi Landfill, Saipan: Feasibility Study

The Marpi Landfill, located on the northern end of the island of Saipan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), is powered by an on-site diesel generator that only operates when the landfill is open and staffed. The CNMI Office of Planning and Development (OPD) aspires to provide the Marpi Landfill with 24-hour power availability despite its remote location and to increase the use of sustainable energy within the CNMI. CNMI has a 20% target for renewable energy consumption, as documented in Sustainable Development Goal #7 in the Comprehensive Sustainable Development Plan (OPD 2021) and the renewable portfolio standard (GPO 2014). To accomplish these goals, the U.S. Department of Energy, through its Interagency Reimbursable Work Agreement with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, funded this feasibility study to assess and prioritize power supply options for the landfill. The availability of solar and wind resources varies seasonally, as does the load. A BESS can help to balance mismatches between generation and load on short (hourly or daily) timescales, but not across seasons. The microgrid scenarios evaluated for Marpi consider options for technology combinations that will both meet the load and utilize available resources, despite the challenge presented by higher loads and lower solar and wind availability during the rainy season, depicted in Figure ES-2. The seven scenarios evaluated are summarized in Table ES-1. Each scenario’s configuration was optimized to include component capacities that reduce capital and operating costs, meet the load, and minimize carbon emissions, as feasible. The costs and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) shown do not assume the use of any grant funding or incentives, although these options were also evaluated. To assist with decision-making, a prioritization matrix (Table ES-3) was created to compare the microgrid scenarios evaluated in this feasibility study according to various stakeholder priorities. The prioritization metrics were chosen based on discussions with OPD and will be finalized through stakeholder feedback. The scenarios were given a score between 1 and 7 for each prioritization metric (the lower the score, the higher the priority), and total scores were calculated using assigned weights based on the relative priority of each metric. The total scores were then ranked to produce a prioritized list of microgrid scenarios based on the metrics most important to the project stakeholders. As shown, scenario 4 (100 kW of solar PV, a 75 kW/300 kWh BESS, and 160 kW of diesel generation) ranks highest.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Posterior Regularized Bayesian Neural Network

Traditional NNs often lack the ability for uncertainty quantification. Bayesian NNs(BNNs) could help measure the confidence level by using distributions in NNs modeling. Besides, knowledge is commonly available and could improve the performance of BNNs if it can be properly incorporated. In this work, we propose a novel Posterior-Regularized BNN(PR-BNN) model by incorporating soft and hard constraints as a posterior regularization term. We also propose an augmented Lagrangian method and stochastic optimization algorithm for efficient updating via Monte Carlo sampling. The simulations and case studies for solar PV plants have shown the performance improvement of the proposed model over traditional BNNs.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2021

An Analysis Framework for Distribution Network DER Integration Analysis in India: Distributed Solar in Tamil Nadu

This report is part of a two-part series that represents a year-long collaboration with the Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation Limited (TANGEDCO) on power sector planning. The first report in this series, the Pathways for Tamil Nadu’s Electric Power Sector 2017-2030 report outlines NREL’s work with TANGEDCO's electricity sector planning department to develop a model of the State’s power system and evaluate multiple scenarios of system growth given resource constraints, costs of technologies, and power sector policies. This second report in this series focuses on the rapidly transforming distribution network in the State. The report outlines a framework developed by NREL with TANGEDCO's distribution utility to quickly and accurately analyze the impacts of integrating renewable energy, specifically rooftop solar PV onto Tamil Nadu's distribution system. Together these studies help to prepare Tamil Nadu for a rapidly transforming power system.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

First Solar Thermal Energy Planner (STEP 1) and Nationwide Industrial Heat and Power Analysis

The First Solar Thermal Energy Planner (STEP 1) and Nationwide Industrial Heat and Power Analysis (aka the STEP 1 Project or the Project) aimed to (1) developed a brand-new web tool that could provide decision support through free, rapid techno-economic analysis of behind-the-meter solar+storage systems for industrial process heat and (2) conduct high-level analyses of the cost-competitiveness of the same systems across the US in key sectors. The STEP 1 web tool collects key location, land availability, thermal load profile, proccess heat temperature and media, and other key parameters through an easy-to-use user interface (UI). The UI was designed to meet the user at their level of understanding by minimizing the number of required inputs as much as possible while including options for more nuanced inputs if the user desires. STEP 1 advises users on which solar thermal tehcnologies that could fit their needs based on the inputs provided (namely process media and temperature). The tool can model a wide range of solar thermal technologies including flat plate collectors, evacuated tubes, parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel, and molten salt towers all with corresponding thermal energy storage (TES) - solar PV with resistive heating and TES is also included. Once the parameters are collected, a nominal thermal energy production profile for the facility's location is generated using NREL's System Advisory Model (SAM) and then passed to a modified version of NREL's REopt platform to optimize the size (capacity) and dispatch of the solar+storage system to minimize lifecycle costs subject to energy balance, fuel and electricity rates, emission reductions goals, and other constraints. This entire process takes less than 20 minutes, is completely free, requires zero coding skills, and provides the user with a high-level assessment on the techno-economic feasability of deploying solar+storage systems for their energy needs. In addition to the development of the STEP 1 web tool, the project completed two complementary analyses focused on leveraging the backend code of STEP 1, public industrial facility locations and fuel consumption data, and key sector information to assess the economic opportunity of reducing fuel costs at various levels of capacity factor around the US. Both analyses found that there are key markets, locations, industrial sectors (namely food and beverage), and degrees of offset where solar thermal technologies could be cost-effectively deployed, highlighting a key market entry point for these technologies, and assessing deployment potential. In summary, the STEP 1 project improved the opportunities for solar+storage systems to expand into the industrial process heat market through breaking down barriers to assessing these technologies.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Security assessment and impact analysis of cyberattacks in integrated T&D power systems

In this paper, we examine the impact of cyberattacks in an integrated transmission and distribution (T&D) power grid model with distributed energy resource (DER) integration. We adopt the OCTAVE Allegro methodology to identify critical system assets, enumerate potential threats, analyze and prioritize risks for threat scenarios. Based on the analysis, attack strategies and exploitation scenarios are identified which could lead to system compromise. Specifically, we investigate the impact of data integrity attacks in inverted-based solar PV controllers, control signal blocking attacks in protective switches and breakers, and coordinated monitoring and switching time-delay attacks. Index Terms—Cyberattacks, security assessment, impact analysis, case studies, integrated power systems.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

High-Temperature Linear Receiver Enabled by Multicomponent Aerogels

Concentrating solar thermal (CST) technology has significant potential mainly due to its dispatchability and low cost of storage. However, to compete with other sources, including utility-scale solar PV, its final cost (cents/kWh) still needs to be lowered. Cost reduction can be achieved by improving the system level efficiency of the CST plants through the deployment of advanced power cycles, which operate at high temperatures of ~700°C. However, optical, and thermal losses pose a major challenge to the efficiency of such CST systems. The overall aim of this project is to investigate and de-risk a linear solar receiver concept called an Aerogel Insulated Receiver (AIR) that generates high temperatures (up to 700°C) at a low solar concentration ratio (<100) and with a high collection efficiency (optical × receiver). Our prior work has demonstrated the thermal stability1 and optical and heat-insulating properties2,3 of transparent aerogel insulation at a one-inch scale. The focus of this work is on (1) co-optimization of the geometry of the aerogel tile and receiver enclosure to fit a standard parabolic collector (PTC), (2) scale-up of aerogels into 4-inch tiles while preserving key properties, (3) experimental measurement of receiver heat loss (W/m) in a >70-cm test stand and validation of anticipated receiver performance at high temperatures. Regarding (1), appropriate optical and thermal models for a parabolic trough receiver (PTR) are developed and validated. The geometry of the aerogels and the receiver enclosure are co-optimized to maximize the collection efficiency. The model predicts a 54% collection efficiency at 700°C for an AIR design based on flat aerogels. By combining the collection efficiency with the power block efficiency of supercritical CO 2 cycles, we predict >10% improvements in peak plant efficiency relative to existing line-focusing CST systems. The application of curved plasmonic aerogels is predicted to further increase the collection efficiency to 64%. Regarding (2), we demonstrate the successful development of 6-inch-long refractory aerogel tiles with optical, thermal, and stability characteristics consistent with our prior work. This scale-up requires a transition to a larger ALD station and modifying the ALD process variables such as exposure time and the number of precursor doses. Regarding (3), we design and develop an AIR test stand measuring 3 feet in length. Heat loss performance analysis is carried out using the test stand. The results indicate that aerogel insulation can significantly reduce receiver thermal losses at the high operating temperatures required for next-generation PTRs. The experimental results agree with the heat loss performance predicted by our receiver model. Lastly, we conducted preliminary failure mode and effects (FMEA) and techno-economic (TEA) analyses to identify failure mitigation strategies and commercial opportunities, respectively. Overall, this project identifies key opportunities and challenges in deploying aerogel insulating receivers in next-generation line-focusing CST technologies.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Quantifying Socioeconomic Impacts of Electricity Generating Technologies

The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and other cost metrics used in energy planning do not account for out-of-market impacts of the technology choice. While a decision-maker at the utility or asset owner level may compare multiple forms of electricity generating technology using LCOE, a decision-maker over energy policy or community stakeholders may be interested in considering impacts beyond those that LCOE measures. This report quantifies economic impacts such as jobs and wage growth across electricity generation technologies then develops an approach to systematically compare socioeconomic metrics across technology choices. To address additional workforce related impacts, this report also compares the typical workforce education requirements and annual income levels for multiple types of electricity generating facilities. The grid scale electricity generating technologies analyzed in this report produce power using conventional hydroelectric dams, coal, natural gas, nuclear reactors, solar PV, land-based wind turbines, geothermal heat, and woody biomass combustion. Although it doesn’t generate electricity itself, the economic impacts associated with battery storage equipment manufacturing and installation were also analyzed.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Panel-Segmentation [SWR-21-18]

Panel-Segmentation contains the scripts for automated metadata extraction of solar PV installations, using satellite imagery coupled with computer vision techniques. In this package, the user can perform the following actions: *Automatically generate a satellite image using a set of lat-long coordinates, and a Google Maps API key. Users would need to set up a Google Cloud account and get a Maps Static API key. Please refer to Setting Up Google Maps Static API Key section for this process. *Perform image segmentation on the satellite image, to locate the solar array(s) in the image on a pixel-by-pixel basis, using an image segmentation model (panel_detection_model.pth). Get classification of the installation (rooftop, ground mounted fixed-tilt or tracking, carport, etc). *Perform azimuth estimation on each solar array cluster in the masked image. *Detect solar panels and get its latitude, longitude, and address within a geographic bounding box through the SOL-Searcher Pipeline. *Detect and calculate hurricane damage on solar installations given pre-hurricane and post-hurricane satellite imagery through the Hurricane Detection Pipeline. *Detect and calculate hail damage on solar installations given satellite imagery through the Hail Detection pipeline. *Convert NOAA MESH (Maximum Estimated Size of Hail) grib2 files into kml or geojson files. *Estimate tilt and azimuth of a solar array by processing USGS LiDAR data for the array’s location.

Edun, Ayobami↗
DOE OSTI2020

Robust and resilient coordination of feeders with uncertain distributed energy resources: from real-time control to long-term planning

To enable flexible demand and ensure reliable and economical operation of distribution systems, we present a novel hierarchical scheme that actively coordinates responsive behind-the-meter grid resources, including distributed energy resources (DERs), to reliably manage each unbalanced distribution feeder and exploits the available flexibility to economically optimize the entire network. Each layer of the scheme employs advanced optimization methods at different timescales to ensure that the system operates within both grid and device limits. The hierarchy is validated in a large-scale realistic simulation based on data from the industry. Simulation results show that coordination of flexibility improves both system reliability and economics, and enables greater penetration of solar PV. Discussion is also provided on the practical viability of the required communications and controls to implement the presented scheme within a large DSO.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Automated analysis of unlabeled PV data with Solar Data Tools software: Overview and feature updates

Distributed rooftop PV systems: ubiquitous, yet commonly have unlabeled data Difficult or impossible to form a performance index We developed Solar Data Tools (SDT), an open-source Python library for analyzing PV power (and irradiance) time-series data SDT enables analysis of unlabeled PV data—no model, no meteorological data, no performance index required Takes a statistical signal processing approach Data processing steps are largely pre-defined and automatic regardless of system type—from utility tracking systems to multi-pitch rooftop systems

Meyers-Im, Bennet E↗
DOE OSTI2025

Energy Improvements of Fire Station 71

Since 2018, the City of Shawnee, Kansas has completed two phases of the State of Kansas Facility Conservation Improvement Program (FCIP), an initiative that guarantees operational cost and energy savings through targeted construction improvements on City facilities and infrastructure. The City is currently in the third phase of this FCIP, where one of the projects included an investment in energy improvements for Fire Station 71 (FS 71). The City partnered with Navitas, an Energy Service Company (ESCO), to implement a Photovoltaic Solar Array on FS71. The purpose of this project was to invest in sustainable building improvements with Energy Conservation Measures (ECM) to bring cost savings to the City and to provide sustainable benefits to the residents of Shawnee. In the first task of the project, Navitas collaborated with the City of Shawnee and the Community Development Department to determine the optimal layout and schedule for the installation of the solar array on FS 71. In the second task of the project, Navitas installed the 99.8 kW DC Photovoltaic solar array system. This system installation comprised of racking, inverters, optimizers, load center, and disconnect, which were all installed at a total ECM price of $\$$247,948. The third task focused on start-up and commissioning of the array. Navitas installed a real-time data analytics information management system integrated with utility meters, which evaluates the operations of the utility system and verifies operation of equipment and ensures optimum operation for energy efficiency. In the final task of this project, this analytics system was used for monitoring and verification, which will continue to be used to evaluate the success of the project for the coming years. The primary goal of the project was to install the 99.8 kW DC PV solar array at FS 71 to demonstrate the viability of solar energy systems in essential municipal facilities. Fire stations are energy demanding structures, as they require a constant intake of power and have a high baseline energy usage. The success of solar arrays on a fire station exemplifies their energy efficiency and effectiveness and displays their potential for application on other city facilities. By installing a solar array at such a facility, the City sought not only to offset electricity usage but also to serve as a model for ECMs in other municipal facilities and infrastructure projects. From an economic standpoint, this project demonstrates the feasibility of renewable energy at the municipal level. The total project cost of $\$$247,948 was split evenly between city funds and award funding, minimizing financial risk while ensuring guaranteed long-term savings. Any excess savings that are beyond the guaranteed minimums remain with the city, which enables future investment in sustainable energy initiatives. This project provides many benefits to the public. In addition to reducing the environmental footprint of city operations, it lowers taxpayer-funded utility spending and improves the energy security of a critical facility. The knowledge gained from this implementation motivates the City to focus on similar efforts across other public facilities in future FCIP phases and other City projects.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Deployment Potential of Concentrating Solar Power Technologies in California

As states within the United States respond to future grid development goals, there is a growing demand for reliable and resilient nighttime generation that can be addressed by low-cost, long-duration energy storage solutions. This report studies the potential of including concentrating solar power (CSP) in the technology mix to support California’s goals as defined in Senate Bill 100. A joint agency report study that determined potential pathways to achieve the renewable portfolio standard set by the bill did not include CSP, and our work provides information that could be used as a follow-up. This study uses a capacity expansion model configured to have nodal spatial fidelity in California and balancing-area fidelity in the Western Interconnection outside of California. The authors discovered that by applying current technology cost projections CSP fulfills nearly 15% of the annual load while representing just 6% of total installed capacity in 2045, replacing approximately 30 GWe of wind, solar PV, and standalone batteries compared to a scenario without CSP included. The deployment of CSP in the results is sensitive to the technology’s cost, which highlights the importance of meeting cost targets in 2030 and beyond to enable the technology’s potential contribution to California’s carbon reduction goals.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Life cycle analysis of a hydrogen production system based on solid oxide electrolysis cells integrated with different energy and wastewater sources

Hydrogen production via water electrolysis is a promising and evolving technology. The solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) is one of the several technologies for this purpose. They are alternatives to the traditional hydrogen production from fossil fuels to enhance global energy decarbonization. However, in the bid for sustainability and a green economy, these technologies are not free from causing some environmental burdens. Using life cycle assessment (LCA), the greenhouse gas emission and degree of environmental impacts by these technologies can be identified and measured throughout their lifespan. This study addresses how to quantify these CO 2 emission impacts for an electrolytic system with different energy sources. The LCA of a novel integrated hydrogen production SOEC system with energy from solar photovoltaic and bituminous powerplant is performed using simaPro, the leading global LCA solution software. Measuring the environmental impact of the electrolytic operation in terms of weight, the bituminous powerplant poses damage which is, on average 700% more than solar PV. The thermal-to-hydrogen efficiency of the SOEC system is 56%, and a probable 28% reduction in carbon footprint with heat integration. The steam generation and the manufacturing of the SOEC have a very high environmental impact potential on the system. Here, we recommend LCA and net energy analysis is carried out for every new hydrogen technology and adequate comparison to enhance sustainable and green economy.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Packages of Distributed Energy Technologies Demonstrating Demand Flexibility at Community Scale

The combination of increased electric load growth across all sectors, deferred electrical infrastructure investment, and other factors resulting in variable electric power supply, has created technical challenges to maintaining a resilient and reliable grid. Many federal, regional, and local efforts are in play to modernize the electric grid, including advancing building technologies and distributed energy resources (DERs) that are utilizing smarter controls to become responsive to both occupant and grid needs. This report reviews ten pilot projects demonstrating how groups of buildings combined with behind-the-meter (BTM) DERs such as electric vehicle (EV) charging, battery storage, flexible HVAC and domestic hot water systems, and photovoltaic systems can reliably and cost effectively provide grid services. Each of the ten pilot projects aim to deliver both energy efficiency and demand flexibility (DF) while supporting load growth. The ten demonstration teams are piloting flexible DER packages across diverse communities of residential and commercial buildings to address a variety of regional grid needs. The outcomes of these pilot projects will be used to inform future scaling through utility program development. This paper characterizes the ten teams, showcasing the decision-making process used by each group to develop their packages (Section 2), the grid services they plan to deliver (Section 3), the types of DER packages selected for deployment within building sectors (Section 4) and trends between building sector, DER types, and grid services In order to achieve community scale benefits, the pilot projects must utilize aggregated control mechanisms for coordinating buildings and DERs together. Several types of coordinated control architectures have evolved amongst the teams, influenced by use type, existing market conditions, and integration type. Three coordinated controls architectures have been characterized, highlighting their use cases, benefits, challenges, and tradeoffs in their design. These insights can aid utilities, control vendors, and developers in scaling community-level energy systems (Paul, 2024). Ultimately, the technology packages selected by the ten teams will be coordinated to provide power system services, also known as grid services. Insights from these demonstrations will be useful for grid operators, regulators, aggregators and other stakeholders as they look to deploy demand flexible resources as grid services in the future. The grid services that each team is targeting for demonstration are described in Section 3 and Section 4. Methods for evaluating the grid services have been described in the paper Metrics for Evaluating Grid Service Provision from Communities of Grid-interactive and Efficient Buildings and other DER (MacDonald, 2023). To identify technology packages for demonstration, Section 2 shows that project teams used a range of analysis approaches, including building energy modeling, AMI data analysis, cost-benefit frameworks, and utility pilot data. Some teams emphasized technical modeling to quantify grid impacts and demand reduction potential, while others prioritized economic evaluations, stakeholder input, or exploratory pilots to inform deployment decisions. This diversity reflects the need to tailor selection methods to project goals, available data, and organizational context. Section 5 discusses trends between the DER technologies deployed and the grid service provisions from each team. Residential buildings (multifamily and single family) lean towards technologies that enhance energy efficiency (e.g. weatherization upgrades, smart thermostats) and onsite power generation integration (e.g. solar PV). Commercial building demonstrations prioritize technologies that ensure operational reliability (e.g. battery storage) and centralized energy management systems and optimization solutions. Teams that are deploying controllable storage-based technologies are more likely to provide grid services that require a near real-time response. Teams incorporating load shifting technologies like smart thermostats with HEMs are likely to include energy markets participation and customer bill management offerings. Campus demonstrations are adopting diverse sets of DERs to emphasize renewable generation, paired with centralized control. This section also describes technologies that were considered during project planning but ultimately excluded from final deployment. These demonstrations reveal that effective DER package design should be tailored to building type, customer segment, and construction vintage. Multifamily buildings benefit from centralized HVAC upgrades and supervisory controls, while single-family homes are well-suited for individualized technologies like solar, storage, and smart home energy monitors. Commercial and campus settings prioritize EMIS integration and load optimization. New construction enables cost-effective integration of DER-ready infrastructure, whereas retrofits require deployments aligned with owner and tenant value streams. For utility program planners, early coordination with developers and building owners, paired with segmented and modular program offerings, can improve adoption, scalability, and grid impact.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Control Strategies and Validation in the Hybrid Optimization and Performance Platform (HOPP)

The Hybrid Optimization and Performance Platform (HOPP) is a tool that simulates hybrid power plants in various configurations, and also calculates the financial feasibility of these plants. This report outlines an overview of HOPP and the energy storage dispatch strategies available. It then presents three case studies which demonstrate different applications of HOPP. The first case looks at the profitability of hybrid power plants in different locations in the USA. The second case examines the availability of hybrid power plants to provide energy reliability services. The third case presents a plant that produces both hydrogen and electricity, and demonstrates a dispatch strategy that chooses the most profitable energy vector based on price signals. The next section shows the validation of HOPP on operational data, using data from both unit-scale and utility-scale power plants. This validation process demonstrated that HOPP can simulate the power output of both wind and solar PV plants at both scales with comparable fidelity to an existing commercial software tool. Finally, HOPP is applied in a field test which applies an optimal dispatch strategy to a physical battery in a unit-scale hybrid plant at NREL. HOPP's optimal dispatch strategy, applied in a real-world setting, improved this hybrid plant's ability to meet a load signal while minimizing operational costs.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗