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At least 217 records · Page 12
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NASA NTRS1994

Spectral analysis of ALH 84001, a meteorite from Mars

ALH 84001 has recently been reclassified as a meteorite from Mars (SNC) and contains more than 90% orthopyroxene with minor chromite and accessory phases of augite, maskelynite, and carbonate. This meteorite represents a new class of igneous material from Mars. We have measured reflectance spectra of ALH 84001 as a chip as a powder, dry sieved to less than 125 microns to compare with previous spectral analyses of SNCs and remote observations of Mars. Spectra of the chip and powder in the visible-to-near-infrared region are shown. These spectra are composites of data measured with the RELAB bidirectional spectrometer from 0.3 to 2.55 microns and a Nicolet FTIR for longer wavelengths. As expected, the spectra of the chip have negative slopes and are significantly darker than the spectrum of the particulate sample, which has a positive slope. The strong absorptions near 1 micron and 2 microns are characteristic of low-Ca pyroxene and have band rninima of 0.925 microns and 1.930 microns. The strong absorption near 3 microns is characteristic of water. There is a distinct flattening in the spectrum between 1.0 and 1.5 microns indicating the presence of an additional absorption. This is interpreted to be the result of Fe(2+) in the M1 site of low-Ca pyroxene. Mid-infrared spectra showing the Christiansen feature and the reststrahlen bands are shown for spectra of the powder and of three different locations on the chip. These spectra exhibit several features in this range, some of which are associated with a specific region on the chip. Each of the spectra includes a doublet reststrahlen peak near 1100/cm, and peaks near 880 and 500/cm, which are typical for low-Ca pyroxenes. Weaker features at 940-1000/cm, 600-750/cm, and 530-560/cm are present in spectra from some locations on the chip, but not others, implying compositional and textural variation.

Bishop, J.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A model composition for Mars derived from the oxygen isotopic ratios of martian/SNC meteorites

Oxygen is the most abundant element in most meteorites, yet the ratios of its isotopes are seldom used to constrain the compositional history of achondrites. The two major achondrite groups have O isotope signatures that differ from any plausible chondritic precursors and lie between the ordinary and carbonaceous chondrite domains. If the assumption is made that the present global sampling of chondritic meteorites reflects the variability of O reservoirs at the time of planetessimal/planet aggregation in the early nebula, then the O in these groups must reflect mixing between known chondritic reservoirs. This approach, in combination with constraints based on Fe-Mn-Mg systematics, has been used previously to model the composition of the basaltic achondrite parent body (BAP) and provides a model precursor composition that is generally consistent with previous eucrite parent body (EPB) estimates. The same approach is applied to Mars exploiting the assumption that the SNC and related meteorites sample the martian lithosphere. Model planet and planetesimal compositions can be derived by mixing of known chondritic components using O isotope ratios as the fundamental compositional constraint. The major- and minor-element composition for Mars derived here and that derived previously for the basaltic achondrite parent body are, in many respects, compatible with model compositions generated using completely independent constraints. The role of volatile elements and alkalis in particular remains a major difficulty in applying such models.

Delaney, J. S.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Lunar and martian meteorite delivery services

Launch mechanisms for lunar and martian meteorites have been investigated, by integrating physical modeling constraints, geochemical cosmic-ray exposure (CRE) constraints, and petrologic constraints. The potential source region for lunar meteorites is remarkably small compared to the final crater volume. CRE constraints indicate that most launches start at depths of less than or equal to 3.2 m, and cratering theory implies derivation of suitably accelerated objects from a subvolume with diameter only about 0.3 x the final crater diameter. The shallow depth provenance is probably related to shock-wave interference, enhanced by the lunar regolith's extremely low compressional wave velocity. CRE constraints alone imply that four to five separate launch events are represented among the eight well-studied lunar meteorites. Most of the lunar meteorites are regolith breccias, which tend to show only limited compositional diversity within any kilometer-scale region of the Moon. Several others are polymict breccias, which also show relatively subdued compositional diversity, compared to igneous rocks. The observed diversity among these samples in terms of abundances of mare basalt and KREEP, and in Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio, implies that among eight well-studied lunar meteorites only two potential source craters pairings are plausible: between Asuka-881757 + Y-793169 (most probable) and between Y-793274 + EET875721. Altogether, these eight lunar meteorites apparently represent at least six separate source craters, including three in the past 10(exp 5) years and five in the past 10(exp 6) years. CRE constraints imply that SNC meteorites are launched from systematically greater than lunar meteorites. SNCs are also systematically bigger, and all nine well-studied SNCs are uncommonly young (by martian standards) mafic igneous rocks. Comparison between Viking and Apollo results reveals that rocks the size of common meteorites are remarkably scarce in the martian regolith, probably due to pervasive weathering. A plausible explanation for these trends is that most old, small, and shallow rocks on Mars have been weakened by a two-stage process of brecciation followed by pervasive weathering, to the point where they seldom survive the stresses of spallation off the planet. The scarcity of source-crater pairing among the lunar meteorites implies that these objects can be launched from craters much smaller than previously estimated and tends to support the suggestion of Rabinowitz (1993) that present-day cratering rates for the Earth-Moon region may be higher than previously estimated.

Warren, Paul H.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Impact Cratering Calculations

Understanding the physical processes of impact cratering on planetary surfaces and atmospheres as well as collisions of finite-size self-gravitating objects is vitally important to planetary science. The observation has often been made that craters are the most ubiquitous landform on the solid planets and the satellites. The density of craters is used to date surfaces on planets and satellites. For large ringed basin craters (e.g. Chicxulub), the issue of identification of exactly what 'diameter' transient crater is associated with this structure is exemplified by the arguments of Sharpton et al. (1993) versus those of Hildebrand et al. (1995). The size of a transient crater, such as the K/T extinction crater at Yucatan, Mexico, which is thought to be the source of SO,-induced sulfuric acid aerosol that globally acidified surface waters as the result of massive vaporization of CASO, in the target rock, is addressed by our present project. The impact process excavates samples of planetary interiors. The degree to which this occurs (e.g. how deeply does excavation occur for a given crater diameter) has been of interest, both with regard to exposing mantle rocks in crater floors, as well as launching samples into space which become part of the terrestrial meteorite collection (e.g. lunar meteorites, SNC's from Mars). Only in the case of the Earth can we test calculations in the laboratory and field. Previous calculations predict, independent of diameter, that the depth of excavation, normalized by crater diameter, is d(sub ex)/D = 0.085 (O'Keefe and Ahrens, 1993). For Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) fragments impacting Jupiter, predicted excavation depths of different gas-rich layers in the atmosphere, were much larger. The trajectory and fate of highly shocked material from a large impact on the Earth, such as the K/T bolide is of interest. Melosh et al. (1990) proposed that the condensed material from the impact upon reentering the Earth's atmosphere induced. radiative heating, and producing global firestorms. The observed reentry splash of the SL-9 impact-induced plumes that reimpact Jupiter (Boslough et al., 1994) supported Melosh's K/T model. The fate of early primitive planetary atmospheres during the latter stages of planetary accretion, resulting from impactors in the 100 to 103 km diameter require modeling, e.g. Newman et al. (1997). Ahrens (1990; 1993) and Chen and Ahrens (1997) found that upon delivery of most of the impact energy to the solid planet, very large ground motions arise, which couple sufficient kinetic energy to the atmosphere to cause substantial atmospheric escape. The trade-off of this model with that of Cameron (1997) who suggests that atmospheric blow-off occurs as a result of the massive impact-induced heating of the atmosphere and Pepin (1997) who uses this heating event to model differential hydrodynamic loss of lighter atmospheric gases, requires further research.

Ahrens, Thomas J.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Martian Volatiles and Isotopic Signatures

Data on martian volatiles gathered from Viking atmosphere measurements, modest groundbased spectra, shock-implanted atmospheric gases in martian (SNC) meteorites, trapped mantle gases in martian meteorites, and volatile-rich solid phases in martian meteorites, are presented. Atmospheric volatiles, surface volatiles, and isotopic chronologies are discussed, along with energetic particle interactions.

Bogard, Donald D.↗
NASA NTRS1998

Pristine Igneous Rocks and the Early Differentiation of Planetary Materials

Our studies are highly interdisciplinary, but are focused on the processes and products of early planetary and asteroidal differentiation, especially the genesis of the ancient lunar crust. Most of the accessible lunar crust consists of materials hybridized by impact-mixing. Rare pristine (unmixed) samples reflect the original genetic diversity of the early crust. We studied the relative importance of internally generated melt (including the putative magma ocean) versus large impact melts in early lunar magmatism, through both sample analysis and physical modeling. Other topics under investigation included: lunar and SNC (martian?) meteorites; igneous meteorites in general; impact breccias, especially metal-rich Apollo samples and polymict eucrites; effects of regolith/megaregolith insulation on thermal evolution and geochronology; and planetary bulk compositions and origins. We investigated the theoretical petrology of impact melts, especially those formed in large masses, such as the unejected parts of the melts of the largest lunar and terrestrial impact basins. We developed constraints on several key effects that variations in melting/displacement ratio (a strong function of both crater size and planetary g) have on impact melt petrology. Modeling results indicate that the impact melt-derived rock in the sampled, megaregolith part of the Moon is probably material that was ejected from deeper average levels than the non-impact-melted material (fragmental breccias and unbrecciated pristine rocks). In the largest lunar impacts, most of the impact melt is of mantle origin and avoids ejection from the crater, while most of the crust, and virtually all of the impact-melted crust, in the area of the crater is ejected. We investigated numerous extraordinary meteorites and Apollo rocks, emphasizing pristine rocks, siderophile and volatile trace elements, and the identification of primary partial melts, as opposed to partial cumulates. Apollo 15 sample 15434,28 is an extraodinarily large glass spherule, nearly if not entirely free of meteoritic contamination, and provides insight into the diversity of mare basalts in the Hadley-Apennine region. Apollo 14 sample 14434 is in many respects a new rock type, intermediate between nonmare gabbronorites and mare basalts. We helped to both plan and implement a consortium to study the Yamato-793605 SNC/martian meteorite.

Warren, Paul H.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Petrology and Geochemistry of a Mg- and Al-Rich Orthopyroxenite Xenolith in the EETA79001 Shergottite: Implications for Mars Crustal Evolution

EETA79001 is a Mars meteorite (SNC) consisting of multiple rock types, including two basalt types, olivine and pyroxene xenocrysts, and ultramafic xenoliths. This study is focused on the petrology and geochemistry of one orthopyroxenite xenolith in PTS 68, designated X-1. It consists of chemically homogeneous orthopyroxene cores with exceptionally high Mg/Fe (mg#=85) and Al. Cores are permeated by minute high-Si+Al glassy inclusions, some with augite microlites. Magnesian core areas are mantled by more Fe-rich orthopyroxene rims grading to pigeonite away from cores. The xenolith is transected by cross-cutting shear planes, some of pre-incorporation origin. Major and minor element composition and variation suggest that core areas are primarily igneous, crystallized from a high temperature mafic melt. However, nearly constant mg# across cores suggest metamorphic equilibration. Si+Al inclusions may result from, among other processes, exsolution of feldspathic material during subsolidus cooling, or may be solid materials (alkali feldspar) poikilitically enclosed by growing igneous orthopyroxene crystals. Late reaction with more fractionated melts produced Fe-rich mantles, the whole assemblage later cut by tectonic micro-shear planes. Raw electron microprobe data produced during this study are available on request from the author.

Berkley, John L.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Search for Unique Organic Biomarkers in ALH84001

Four goals were outlined for this project. These were: [1] to reproduce the measurement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) in ALH84001 with both a higher spatial resolution and sensitivity than has been previously reported; [2] to extend such measurements to include other members of the Martian SNC (Shergotties, Nahklites, and Chassigny) meteorite clan, in particular the Antarctic Martian meteorite EETA79001; [3] to address issues of potential organic contamination, because at present very little is known about the effect of terrestrial weathering in the Antarctic environment as it pertains to perturbing an indigenous organic distribution within a meteoritic matrix; and [4] to diversify the range of organic compounds studied to include species that can serve as unique biological markers - "molecular fossils" - derived from once living organisms. In order to achieve this, three specific goals were outlined for the funding period 06/01/97 to 02/28/98. They were: [1] to investigate the effects of terrestrial weathering and organic contamination of meteoritic samples collected from Antarctica; [2] to reproduce and extend upon the measurements of PAHs in ALH84001 with the aim of establishing or refuting the indigeneity of these species; and [3] to extend the analysis of organic compounds in ALH84001 and EETA79001 to address compounds that are considered to be more biologically relevant than PAHS. All three were successfully accomplished, as detailed in the previous performance report. In brief, however, the results achieved were to establish that the PAHs found in ALH84001 were indigenous and not due to contamination, and to determine that a novel and sensitive technique in meteoritic work, capillary zone electrophoresis (CE), could indeed detect amino acids, a potential class of biomarker.

Zare, Richard N.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Wind Enhanced Escape, Ion Pickup and the Evolution of Water on Mars

Preferential loss of hydrogen over deuterium from Mars has produced a deuterium rich atmosphere possessing a D/B ratio 5.2 times that of terrestrial water. Rayleigh fractionation is applied, constrained by the deuterium enrichment factor, to determine the magnitudes of ancient and present water reservoirs on the planet. The dominant lose mechanisms of R and D from the current atmosphere are thought to be thermal escape and solar wind ion pickup of the neutral and ion forms of theme constituents, respectively. During an earlier martian epoch, only thermal escape was significant because Mars had a terrestrial sized magnetosphere that protected the atmosphere from solar wind scavenging processes. The magnitudes of present and ancient water reservoirs are estimated when thermal escape is considered alone and subsequently when the effects of ion pickup are added. The escape fluxes of R and D are significantly increased above the respective Jeans fluxes when the effects of thermospheric winds and planetary rotation are accounted for at the exobase. Such wind enhanced escape also increases as the mass of an escaping constituent increases; thus, the increase in the escape flux of D is greater than that of H. When the fractionation process is also constrained by the D/H ratio observed in hydrous minerals of SNC meteorites, an ancient crustal reservoir of Martian water in derived, tens of meters in global-equivalent depth, considerably exceeding that obtained with no winds. The reservoir becomes even larger when ion pickup processes are added.

Hartle, Richard↗
NASA NTRS1999

Enstatite Meteorites and the Original Heterogeneity of Mn-53 Distribution in the Solar Nebula

We have shown earlier that the relative abundance of radiogenic Cr-53 in bulk ordinary chondrites (approximately 0.48 epsilon) is clearly different from that in the earth-moon system (0 epsilon). The SNC parent body (Mars) is characterized by an intermediate Cr-53 excess (approximately 0.23 epsilon). We have also shown that the Mn-Cr systematics of the howardite-eucrite-diogenite parent body (HED PB, the asteroid Vesta) is consistent with the chondritic Mn/Cr ratio in the bulk HED PB and that it has a Cr-53 excess of approximately 0.5 epsilon units which is within error the same as that of chondrites. It appears that the excesses of Cr-53 in these planets are a function of their present heliocentric distance. The study of some other meteorite classes (angrites, pallasites, primitive achondrites) has shown that their Mn-CR systematics is consistent with that of the ordinary chondrites. The observed gradient in the radiogenic Cr-53 abundances can be explained by a). an early volatility controlled radial Mn/Cr fractionation in the nebula or b). an original heterogeneity of Mn-53. The first assumption, however, requires the Mn/Cr ratios of the bulk Earth and Mars to be considerably lower than the inferred model Mn/Cr ratios for these two planets. For this reason, we suggested that the observed gradient is due to an original radial Mn-53 heterogeneity in the late nebula.

Lugmair, Guenter W.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Mineralogy of the Martian Surface: Crustal Composition to Surface Processes

Over the course of this award we have: 1) Completed and published the results of a study of the effects of hyperfine particles on reflectance spectra of olivine and quartz, which included the development of scattering codes. Research has also progressed in the analysis of the effects of fine particle sizes on clay spectra. 2) Completed the analysis of the mineralogy of dark regions, showed the insitu compositions are highly correlated to the SNC meteorites, and determined that the martian mantle was depleted in aluminum prior to 2-3 GA ago; Studies of the mineralogic heterogeneity of surficial materials on Mars have also been conducted. and 3) Performed initial work on the study of the physical and chemical processes likely to form and modify duricrust. This includes assessments of erosion rates, solubility and transport of iron in soil environments, and models of pedogenic crust formation.

Mustard, John F.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Evidence for Ancient Martian Life

Three SNC meteorites ranging in age from 4.5 Ga. to 1.3 Ga. to 165 m.y. contain features suggestive, of past biogenic activity on Mars. Because we do not know what past martian life looks like or its physical or chemical properties, the only tools or criteria which the scientific community have to evaluate evidence of past life is to use evidence for early life on earth. There are features within ALH8400 I's carbonate globules and the pre-terrestrial aqueous alteration phases of Nakhla and Shergotty which have been interpreted as possible evidence for past life on early Mars. Eight criteria have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. They are: (a) geologic context; (b) sample's age and stratigraphic location (c) cellular morphology; (d) colonies; (e) biominerals; (f) stable isotope patterns unique to biology; (g) organic biomarkers; (h) indigenous features to the sample. For general acceptance of past life, essentially most or all of these criteria must be met. Studies have shown conclusively that the reduced carbon components in ALH84001 and Nakhla are indigenous to the meteorites and are not terrestrial contaminants Based on carbon isotopic compositions and mineralogical morphologies, there is no question or disagreement that the carbonate globules or embedded magnetites in ALH84001 and the pre-terrestrial aqueous alteration products in Nakhla and Shergotty were formed on Mars. Possible microfossil structures and some reduced carbon components in the carbonates and pre-terrestrial aqueous alteration products are, therefore, almost certainly indigenous, but other possible evidence for life (e.g. amino acids) may be a result of terrestrial contamination Our hypothesis of possible early life on Mars was presented in August 1996. Today, we believe it stands stronger than when originally presented. To date, no fatal strikes have been made to any of our original four lines of evidence. While details of the hypothesis are evolving as new data is generated, we believe that our basic premise remains intact: these meteorites contains evidence suggestive of early life on Mars.

Gibson, Everett K., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Fluid Inclusions in Extraterrestrial Samples Fact or Fiction?

Over the years there have been numerous reports of liquid inclusions in meteorites. Roedder reviews the reported occurrences of liquid inclusions in meteorites and states that "silicate-melt inclusions are expectable and apparently ubiquitous, but the presence of actual liquid inclusions (i.e., with moving bubbles at room temperature) would seem almost impossible." The reason for this conclusion is that meteorites (presumably) form in space at high temperatures and very low pressures where liquid water (or carbon dioxide) is not stable. Perhaps the most infamous report of fluid inclusions in meteorites was that of Warner et al. In that study, the authors reported the presence of two-phase, liquid-vapor inclusions in a diogenite from Antarctica. This report of fluid inclusions generated considerable interest in the meteorite community, and caused many to question existing models for the origin of the diogenites. This interest was short-lived however, as later investigations of the same samples showed that the inclusions were most likely artifacts. Rudnick et al. showed that many of the inclusions in meteorites prepared at the Johnson Space Center contained a fluid that fluoresced strongly under the laser beam on the Raman microprobe. They interpreted this to indicate that the inclusions contained Almag oil used in the preparation of thin sections. Presumably, the Almag oil entered empty vesicles along fractures that were opened intermittently during cutting. Here, the occurrence of unambiguous fluid inclusions that could not have been introduced during sample preparation are described in samples from two different extraterrestrial environments. One environment is represented by the SNC (martian) meteorites ALH 84001 and Nakhla. The second environment is represented by the Monahans 1998 meteorite that fell recently in the USA.

Bodnar, R. J.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Comparative Magma Oceanography

The question of whether the Earth ever passed through a magma ocean stop is of considerable interest. Geochemical evidence strongly suggests that the Moon had a magma ocean and the evidence is mounting that the same was true for Mars. Analyses of mar (SNC) meteorites have yielded insights into the differentiation history of Mars, and consequently, it is interesting to compare that planet to the Earth. Three primary features of An contrast strongly to those of the Earth: (1) the extremely ancient ages of the martian core, mantle, and crust (approx. 4.55 b.y.); (2) the highly depleted nature of the martian mantle; and (3) the extreme ranges of Nd isotopic compositions that arise within the crust and depleted mantle.

Jones, John H.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Evidence for Ancient Martian Life

Three SNC meteorites ranging in age from 4.5 Ga. to 1.3 Ga. to 165 m.y. contain features suggestive of past biogenic activity on Mars. Because we do not know what past martian life looks like or its physical or chemical properties, the only tools or criteria which the scientific community have to evaluate evidence of past life is to use evidence for early life on earth. There are features within ALH84001's carbonate globules and the preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases of Nakhla and Shergotty which have been interpreted as possible evidence for past life on early Mars. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Gibson, E. K., Jr.↗
NASA NTRS1999

High-Resolution Spectroscopy of Mars: Recent Results and Implications for Atmospheric Evolution

It is believed that Earth, Venus, and Mars were formed by the same rocky and icy planetesimals, which resembled meteorites and comets in their composition, respectively. These planets are thus expected to have initially had the same chemical and isotope composition. Scaling the mass of the terrestrial ocean by the planetary mass ratio, the expected initial H2O abundance on Mars is a layer of about 1 km thick. Scaling the abundance of CO2 on Venus, the expected initial CO2 abundance on Mars is 15 bars. Evidently, significant parts of the initial H2O and CO2 abundances have been lost. Intense meteorite impact erosion and hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen (which could drag to escape more heavy species) were dominant loss processes in the first 0.8 Byr. Later, atmospheric sputtering by O+ ions resulted in the dissociation of CO2 and massive losses of O, C, and H. Formation of carbonates also reduced CO2 to its present abundance which currently exists in the atmosphere, on the polar caps, and is absorbed by regolith. Water loss is currently due to thermal escape of H and nonthermal escape of O, both formed by photodissociation of H2O. All loss processes resulted in fractionation of the H, O, and C isotopes. Therefore, the current isotope ratios in H2O and CO2 are clues to the history of volatiles on Mars. There are three tools to study H2O and CO2 isotopes in the martian atmosphere: (i) mass spectrometry from landing probes, (ii) analyses of Mars' gases trapped in the SNC meteorites which were ejected from Mars, and (iii) high-resolution spectroscopy of the H2O andCO2 bands. Method (i) is the best but is the most expensive. Mass spectrometers to be used should be designed for high-precision isotope measurements. Method (ii) makes it possible to reach an uncertainty +/- 0.1%. However, the obtained results are affected by some uncontrolled interactions: isotope fractionations of (1) trapped gases and (2) those released in pyrolysis, (3) contribution of the impactor, isotope exchanges (4) in the terrestrial environment and (5) with the host rock during pyrolysis. Therefore, the spectroscopic data are of great interest, though their formal accuracy is lower. High-resolution spectroscopy is also a tool to study the current atmosphere of Mars by mapping of some photochemically important species and searching for some minor constituents and their variations. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Krasnopolsky, V. A.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Manganese, Metallogenium, and Martian Microfossils

Manganese could easily be considered an abundant element in the Martian regolith, assuming that the composition of martian meteorites reflects the composition of the planet. Mineralogical analyses of 5 SNC meteorites have revealed an average manganese oxide concentration of 0.48%, relative to the 0.1% concentration of manganese found in the Earth's crust. On the Earth, the accumulation of manganese oxides in oceans, soils, rocks, sedimentary ores, fresh water systems, and hydrothermal vents can be largely attributed to microbial activity. Manganese is also a required trace nutrient for most life forms and participates in many critical enzymatic reactions such as photosynthesis. The wide-spread process of bacterial manganese cycling on Earth suggests that manganese is an important element to both geology and biology. Furthermore, there is evidence that bacteria can be fossilized within manganese ores, implying that manganese beds may be good repositories for preserved biomarkers. A particular genus of bacteria, known historically as Metallogenium, can form star-shaped manganese oxide minerals (called metallogenium) through the action of manganese oxide precipitation along its surface. Fossilized structures that resemble metallogenium have been found in Precambrian sedimentary formations and in Cretaceous-Paleogene cherts. The Cretaceous-Paleogene formations are highly enriched in manganese and have concentrations of trace elements (Fe, Zn, Cu, and Co) similar to modern-day manganese oxide deposits in marine environments. The appearance of metallogenium-like fossils associated with manganese deposits suggests that bacteria may be preserved within the minerals that they form. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Stein, L. Y.↗