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At least 217 records · Page 12
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Single-gap isotropic s- wave superconductivity in single crystals AuSn 4

In this article, London, λ L (T), and Campbell, λ C (T), penetration depths were measured in single crystals of a topological superconductor candidate AuSn 4 . At low temperatures, λ L (T) is exponentially attenuated and, if fitted with the power law, λ(T) ~ T n , gives exponents n > 4, indistinguishable from the isotropic single s- wave gap Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) asymptotic. The superfluid density fits perfectly in the entire temperature range to the BCS theory. The superconducting transition temperature, T c = 2.40 ± 0.05 K, does not change after 2.5 MeV electron irradiation, indicating the validity of the Anderson theorem for isotropic s- wave superconductors. Campbell penetration depth before and after electron irradiation shows no hysteresis between the zero-field cooling (ZFC) and field cooling (FC) protocols, consistent with the parabolic pinning potential. Interestingly, the critical current density estimated from the original Campbell theory decreases after irradiation, implying that a more sophisticated theory involving collective effects is needed to describe vortex pinning in this system. In general, our thermodynamic measurements strongly suggest that the bulk response of the AuSn 4 crystals is fully consistent with the isotropic s- wave weak-coupling BCS superconductivity.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
NASA NTRS1987

A probabilistic model of brittle crack formation

Probability of a brittle crack formation in an elastic solid with fluctuating strength is considered. A set Omega of all possible crack trajectories reflecting the fluctuation of the strength field is introduced. The probability P(X) that crack penetration depth exceeds X is expressed as a functional integral over Omega of a conditional probability of the same event taking place along a particular path. Various techniques are considered to evaluate the integral. Under rather nonrestrictive assumptions, the integral is reduced to solving a diffusion-type equation. A new characteristic of fracture process, 'crack diffusion coefficient', is introduced. An illustrative example is then considered where the integration is reduced to solving an ordinary differential equation. The effect of the crack diffusion coefficient and of the magnitude of strength fluctuations on probability density of crack penetration depth is presented. Practical implications of the proposed model are discussed.

Chudnovsky, A.↗
DOE OSTI2013

Studies of anisotropy of iron based superconductors

To study the electronic anisotropy in iron based superconductors, the temperature dependent London penetration depth, Δλ(T), have been measured in several compounds, along with the angular dependent upper critical field, H c2 (T). Study was undertaken on single crystals of Ba(Fe 1-x Co x ) 2 As 2 with x=0.108 and x=0.127, in the overdoped range of the doping phase diagram, characterized by notable modulation of the superconducting gap. Heavy ion irradiation with matching field doses of 6 T and 6.5 T respectively, were used to create columnar defects and to study their effect on the temperature Δλ(T). The variation of the low-temperature penetration depth in both pristine and irradiated samples was fitted with a power-law function Δλ(T) = AT n . Irradiation increases the magnitude of the pre-factor A and decreases the exponent n, similar to the effect on the optimally doped samples. This finding supports the universal s ± scenario for the whole doping range.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2013

Elaboration of the α-model derived from the BCS theory of superconductivity

The single-band α-model of superconductivity (Padamsee et al 1973 J. Low Temp. Phys. 12 387) is a popular model that was adapted from the single-band Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity mainly to allow fits to electronic heat capacity versus temperature T data that deviate from the BCS prediction. The model assumes that the normalized superconducting order parameter Δ(T)/Δ(0) and therefore the normalized London penetration depth λL(T)/λL(0) are the same as in BCS theory, calculated using the BCS value αBCS ≈ 1.764 of α ≡ Δ(0)/kBTc, where kB is The single-band α-model of superconductivity (Padamsee et al 1973 J. Low Temp. Phys. 12 387) is a popular model that was adapted from the single-band Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory of superconductivity mainly to allow fits to electronic heat capacity versus temperature T data that deviate from the BCS prediction. The model assumes that the normalized superconducting order parameter Δ(T)/Δ(0) and therefore the normalized London penetration depth λL(T)/λL(0) are the same as in BCS theory, calculated using the BCS value αBCS ≈ 1.764 of α ≡ Δ(0)/kBTc, where kB is Boltzmann's constant and Tc is the superconducting transition temperature. On the other hand, to calculate the electronic free energy, entropy, heat capacity and thermodynamic critical field versus T, the α-model takes α to be an adjustable parameter. Here we write the BCS equations and limiting behaviors for the superconducting state thermodynamic properties explicitly in terms of α, as needed for calculations within the α-model, and present plots of the results versus T and α that are compared with the respective BCS predictions. Mechanisms such as gap anisotropy and strong coupling that can cause deviations of the thermodynamics from the BCS predictions, especially the heat capacity jump at Tc, are considered. Extensions of the α-model that have appeared in the literature, such as the two-band model, are also discussed. Tables of values of Δ(T)/Δ(0), the normalized London parameter Λ(T)/Λ(0) and λL(T)/λL(0) calculated from the BCS theory using α = αBCS are provided, which are the same in the α-model by assumption. Tables of values of the entropy, heat capacity and thermodynamic critical field versus T for seven values of α, including αBCS, are also presented.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Investigating the Depth of Penetration of Radionuclides in Concrete - 16292

This paper focuses on some chemical and structural aspects for mature concrete structural substrate that functions as a barrier to radioactive material migration. Exposure to radioactive material may be a consequence of surface contact, such as resulting from exposure by spills or leaks. In properly-prepared waste storage areas, undamaged paint and sealant helps to protect the structural cement. However, damaged surfaces, cracks, and relatively porous slab seams can offer a preferred migration pathway for spilled contaminates, including radionuclides. The cost of remediation of concrete structures is directly related to the amount of concrete that must be removed and subsequently disposed. A carefully implemented investigative plan can be utilized to determine how much concrete must be removed and the approximate level of volumetric radiological contamination can be used to estimate disposal costs. Normal concrete pore solution is saturated with calcium hydroxide and also contains sodium and potassium hydroxide; the pH is typically 13 to 14. Contaminants (such as uranium) that hydrolyze in alkaline media that form precipitant phases and tend to deposit at the near-surface. However, more soluble contaminants, such as Cs-137 (as Cs{sup +}) and Tc-99 (as the pertechnetate anion TcO{sub 4}{sup -}) diffuse more rapidly (and deeply) into the porous substrate. Profiling the migration of the water-soluble radionuclides into a cure (hardened) cement surface is a challenge, since water-cooled saws, borers and similar implements are often used to excise and/or slice the core. Alternately, dry mechanical fracturing for excavation of cement may introduce the possibility of material cross-contamination and uncertainty for the average sampling depth for the sample collection event, potentially yielding non-representative samples, and may preclude determination of crack formation that may have been present in the native (non-fractured) substrate. Structural concrete is comprised of cement and pozzolan paste, relatively impervious aggregate (typically stone and/or sand), and rebar (iron reinforcement). Near-surface aggregate may act as a hydrolytic barrier, causing contaminants leached into the pore water to by-pass the impervious grains, causing deeper-than expected penetration, especially if there are grain boundary cracks also present to facilitate migration. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2014

Vortex-antivortex coexistence in Nb-based superconductor/ferromagnet heterostructures

Low-temperature magnetic force microscopy was used to study the threshold of nucleation of spontaneous vortex-antivortex structures in superconductor/ferromagnet (S/F) hybrid systems. We investigated S/F heterostructures composed of Py as the magnetic material and Nb as the superconductor, with different thicknesses of Py and Nb. The condition for nucleation of spontaneous vortex-antivortex structures depends on fundamental parameters such as the superconducting penetration depth and the coherence length, as well as on the thickness of the superconducting film and the magnetic domain width. Here, we compare our experimental results with those of existing theoretical models and provide an estimate of the threshold of the local out-of-plane component of the magnetization for different Py film thicknesses.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
NASA NTRS1994

Laboratory simulation of intact capture of cometary and asteroidal dust particles in ISAS

In order to develop a collector for intact capturing of cometary dust particles in the SOCCER mission and regolith dust particles released from asteroid surfaces by the impact of projectiles launched from a flying-by spacecraft, various kinds of materials as the collector candidates have been exposed to hypervelocity projectiles in our laboratory. Data based on the penetration characteristics of various materials (penetration depth, hole profile, effectiveness for intact capturing) are greatly increased. The materials tested for these simulation experiments include various kinds of low-density media and multisheet stacks; these are foamed plastics (polystyrene 0.01 g/cc), silica aerogels (0.04 g/cc), air (0.001 g/cc), liquid, and multisheet stack consisting of thin Al sheets (thickness 0.002 to 0.1 mm) or polyethylene sheets. Projectiles used are spheres or cylinders of nylon, polycarbonate, basalt, copper, iron, and volatile organics (e.g.,paradichlorobenzene) of size ranging from 30 micrometers to 1 cm launched by a two-stage light gas gun and a rail gun in ISAS at velocity up to about 7 km/s. Some results obtained by using nylon projectiles of velocity less than about 5 km/s are presented; the penetration depth vs. bulk density of the collector material for several kinds of materials and the velocity at which the projectiles begin to fragment vs. material density for foamed polystyrene.

Fujiwara, A.↗
DOE OSTI2014

Boron Doped diamond films as electron donors in photovoltaics: An X-ray absorption and hard X-ray photoemission study

Highly boron-doped diamond films are investigated for their potential as transparent electron donors in solar cells. Specifically, the valence band offset between a diamond film (as electron donor) and Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ (CIGS) as light absorber is determined by a combination of soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy and hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, which is more depth-penetrating than standard soft X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In addition, a theoretical analysis of the valence band is performed, based on GW quasiparticle band calculations. The valence band offset is found to be small: VBO=VBM{sub CIGS} – VBM{sub diamond}=0.3 eV±0.1 eV at the CIGS/Diamond interface and 0.0 eV±0.1 eV from CIGS to bulk diamond. These results provide a promising starting point for optimizing the band offset by choosing absorber materials with a slightly lower valence band maximum.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2015

Structural and magnetic phase transitions near optimal superconductivity in BaFe 2 (As 1-x P x ) 2

In this study, we use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high-resolution x-ray and neutron scattering to study structural and magnetic phase transitions in phosphorus-doped BaFe 2 (As 1-x P x ) 2 . Thus, previous transport, NMR, specific heat, and magnetic penetration depth measurements have provided compelling evidence for the presence of a quantum critical point (QCP) near optimal superconductivity at x = 0.3. However, we show that the tetragonal-to-orthorhombic structural (T s ) and paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic (AF, T N ) transitions in BaFe 2 (As 1-x P x ) 2 are always coupled and approach to T N ≈ T s ≥ T c (≈ 29 K) for x = 0.29 before vanishing abruptly for x ≥ 0.3. These results suggest that AF order in BaFe 2 (As 1-x P x ) 2 disappears in a weakly first order fashion near optimal superconductivity, much like the electron-doped iron pnictides with an avoided QCP.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2013

Comparison Between Simulated And Experimental Au-ion Profiles Implanted in nanocrystalline ceria

Radiation response of nanocrystalline ceria films deposited on a silicon substrate was investigated under a 3-MeV Au-ion irradiation at 300 K. A uniform grain growth cross the ceria films is observed and effective densification of the ceria thin films occurs during irradiation. The Au ion profiling was measured by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and compared to the Au ion distribution predicted by the Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids (SRIM) code. It is observed that the Au-ion penetration depth is underestimated in comparison with the SIMS measurements. An overestimation of the electronic stopping power for heavy incident ions in the SRIM program may account for the discrepancies between the calculations and the SIMS experimental results. This work presents an approach to compensate the overestimation of the electronic stopping powers in the SRIM program by adjusting the nanocrystalline ceria target density to better predict the ion implantation profile.

Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory↗
NASA NTRS2004

Two-Photon Fluorescence Microscopy Developed for Microgravity Fluid Physics

Recent research efforts within the Microgravity Fluid Physics Branch of the NASA Glenn Research Center have necessitated the development of a microscope capable of high-resolution, three-dimensional imaging of intracellular structure and tissue morphology. Standard optical microscopy works well for thin samples, but it does not allow the imaging of thick samples because of severe degradation caused by out-of-focus object structure. Confocal microscopy, which is a laser-based scanning microscopy, provides improved three-dimensional imaging and true optical sectioning by excluding the out-of-focus light. However, in confocal microscopy, out-of-focus object structure is still illuminated by the incoming beam, which can lead to substantial photo-bleaching. In addition, confocal microscopy is plagued by limited penetration depth, signal loss due to the presence of a confocal pinhole, and the possibility of live-cell damage. Two-photon microscopy is a novel form of laser-based scanning microscopy that allows three-dimensional imaging without many of the problems inherent in confocal microscopy. Unlike one-photon microscopy, it utilizes the nonlinear absorption of two near-infrared photons. However, the efficiency of two-photon absorption is much lower than that of one-photon absorption because of the nonlinear (i.e., quadratic) electric field dependence, so an ultrafast pulsed laser source must typically be employed. On the other hand, this stringent energy density requirement effectively localizes fluorophore excitation to the focal volume. Consequently, two-photon microscopy provides optical sectioning and confocal performance without the need for a signal-limiting pinhole. In addition, there is a reduction in photo-damage because of the longer excitation wavelength, a reduction in background fluorescence, and a 4 increase in penetration depth over confocal methods because of the reduction in Rayleigh scattering.

Fischer, David G.↗
DOE OSTI2014

Disorder-induced topological change of the superconducting gap structure in iron pnictides

In superconductors with unconventional pairing mechanisms, the energy gap in the excitation spectrum often has nodes, which allow quasiparticle excitations at low energies. In many cases, such as in d-wave cuprate superconductors, the position and topology of nodes are imposed by the symmetry, and thus the presence of gapless excitations is protected against disorder. Here we report on the observation of distinct changes in the gap structure of iron–pnictide superconductors with increasing impurity scattering. By the successive introduction of nonmagnetic point defects into BaFe 2 (As 1–x P x ) 2 crystals via electron irradiation, we find from the low-temperature penetration depth measurements that the nodal state changes to a nodeless state with fully gapped excitations. Moreover, under further irradiation the gapped state evolves into another gapless state, providing bulk evidence of unconventional sign-changing s-wave superconductivity. As a result, this demonstrates that the topology of the superconducting gap can be controlled by disorder, which is a strikingly unique feature of iron pnictides.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2014

Superconductivity and Physical Properties of CaPd2Ge2 Single Crystals

We present the superconducting and normal state properties of CaPd2Ge2 single crystals investigated by magnetic susceptibility χ, isothermal magnetization M, heat capacity Cp, in-plane electrical resistivity ρ and London penetration depth λ versus temperature T and magnetic field H measurements. Bulk superconductivity is inferred from the ρ(T) and Cp(T) data. The ρ(T) data exhibit metallic behavior and a superconducting transition with Tc onset = 1.98 K and zero resistivity at Tc 0 = 1.67 K. The χ(T) reveals the onset of superconductivity at 2.0 K. For T > 2.0 K, the χ(T) and M(H) are weakly anisotropic paramagnetic with χab > χc. The Cp(T) data confirm the bulk superconductivity below Tc = 1.69(3) K. The superconducting state electronic heat capacity is analyzed within the framework of a single-band α-model of BCS superconductivity and various normal and superconducting state parameters are estimated. Within the α-model, the Cp(T) data and the ab plane λ(T) data consistently indicate a moderately anisotropic s-wave gap with Δ(0)/kBTc ≈ 1.6, somewhat smaller than the BCS value of 1.764. The relationship of the heat capacity jump at Tc and the penetration depth measurement to the anisotropy in the s-wave gap is discussed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Strong Spin–Charge Coupling and Its Manifestation in the Quasiparticle Structure, Cooper Instability, and Electromagnetic Properties of Cuprates

The Fermi excitation spectrum, the problem of Cooper instability, and the Londons magnetic field penetration depth in cuprate superconductors are considered using the unified conception based on accounting for the strong coupling between the spin of copper ions and holes at oxygen ions. This coupling leads to strong renormalization of the primary spectrum of oxygen holes with the formation of spin-polaron quasiparticles. Analysis of Cooper instability performed using the spin-polaron concept for different channels has shown that only the superconducting d-wave pairing occurs in the ensemble of spin-polaron quasiparticles, and there are no solutions corresponding to the s-wave pairing. It has been demonstrated that the superconducting d-wave pairing is not suppressed by the Coulomb repulsion of holes located at neighboring oxygen ions. This effect is due to peculiarities in the crystallographic structure of the CuO{sub 2} plane and the aforementioned strong spin–fermion coupling. As a result, such interaction of holes is omitted in the kernel of the integral equation for the superconducting order parameter with the d-wave symmetry. It has been shown the Hubbard repulsion of holes and their interaction for the second coordination sphere of the oxygen sublattice for actual intensities of the interaction do not suppress the d-wave type of superconductivity. For the spin-polaron ensemble, we have analyzed the dependence of the Londons magnetic field penetration depth on the temperature and hole concentration. It has been established that the peculiarities of this dependence are closely related to specific features of the spin-polaron spectrum.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of PuO 2 With Visible and UV Raman Spectroscopy: Discrimination Between the Bulk, Surface, and an Intermediate Disordered Layer

Raman spectroscopy is an ideal tool in the characterization of materials including PuO 2 . The wavelength-dependent absorptivity of the material defines the light penetration depth and the relative Raman scattering contribution from the bulk and the surface. Here, the surface contribution to the total Raman scattering was investigated for PuO 2 calcined at various temperatures and recorded with laser wavelengths of 355, 325, and 244 nm. These experiments provided the first glimpse of the wavelength-dependent disappearance and emergence of new phonons and electronic bands from the PuO 2 surface layers. The first indication of the wavelength transition in the Raman spectra was the loss of the 2LO2 (overtone, ~1155 cm -1 ) band and the weakening intensity of the Г 1 → Γ 5 electronic band (~2135 cm -1 ) with the 355-nm excitation laser. The Γ 5 electronic band was barely visible with the 244-nm excitation. The electronic band located at ~1050 cm -1 , corresponding to the Г 1 → Γ 4 electronic transition was observed to dramatically increase in intensity while the Г 1 → Γ 3 electronic band (2640 cm -1 ) sharpened as the UV wavelength was increased in energy from the near- to deep-UV (355–325–244 nm). The FWHM of the T 2g band was found to vary with calcination temperature (450°C and 900°C) with the 325-nm laser and the 244-nm laser. The T 2g band attributes, the strong emergence of the Г 1 → Γ 4 electronic band, and the disappearance of the 2LO2 overtone acquired with the 244-nm excitation for the different calcination temperatures suggest a shallow penetration depth.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Transmission electron microscopy characterization of the fuel-cladding chemical interactions in HT9 cladded U-10Zr fuel

Fuel cladding chemical interaction (FCCI) is a key phenomenon needs to be better understood to establish the design basis for U-10Zr metallic fuel performance. Characterizing the microstructure and chemical composition of FCCI at micron and sub-micron scale is critically important toward a more mechanistic understanding of FCCI phenomenon and its potential effects on cladding integrity and metallic fuel performance. This paper, by using transmission electron microscopy, investigated the FCCI region in HT9 cladded U-10Zr fuel irradiated to 5.7% FIMA burnup at a peak inner cladding temperature of 615 °C in Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF). Four distinct layers are identified in the FCCI region. The migration of Fe into the fuel side leads to the formation of several U-Zr-Fe ternary phases, including ?-Fe0.5Zr0.32U0.18, e-Fe0.3Zr0.4U0.3, and ?-Fe0.06Zr0.23U0.71, mingled with UFe2, U6Fe, and U phase at various Fe penetration depth up to ~ 150 µm. On the cladding side, grain coarsening and significant lanthanides infiltration along grain boundaries are observed. Laves phase, (Fe,Cr)2(Mo,W), which typically does not exist in fresh HT9, is identified in a wide radial range in the cladding. The typical HT9 martensitic lath structure and pre-existing M23C6 precipitates disappear, partially or completely, depending on the radial distance from the fuel-cladding interface. Those microstructural and compositional changes could cause mechanical degradation in the HT9 cladding. The present characterization results will improve the understanding of FCCI phenomenon and facilitate the development of microstructure-informed FCCI modeling for metallic fuel.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Experimental setup combining in situ hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and real-time surface X-ray diffraction for characterizing atomic and electronic structure evolution during complex oxide heterostructure growth

We describe the next-generation system for in situ characterization of a complex oxide thin film and heterostructure growth by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) using synchrotron hard X-rays. The system consists of a PLD chamber mounted on a diffractometer allowing both real-time surface X-ray diffraction (SXRD) and in situ hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES). HAXPES is performed in the incident X-ray energy range from 4 to 12 keV using a Scienta EW4000 electron energy analyzer mounted on the PLD chamber fixed parallel with the surface normal. In addition to the standard application mode of HAXPES for disentangling surface from bulk properties, the increased penetration depth of high energy photoelectrons is used for investigation of the electronic structure changes through thin films grown deliberately as variable thickness capping layers. Such heterostructures represent model systems for investigating a variety of critical thickness and dead layer phenomena observed at complex oxide interfaces. In this new mode of operation, in situ HAXPES is used to determine the electronic structure associated with unique structural features identified by real-time SXRD during thin film growth. The system is configured for using both laboratory excitation sources off-line and on-line operation at beamline 33-ID-D at the Advanced Photon Source. We illustrate the performance of the system by preliminary scattering and spectroscopic data on oxygen vacancy ordering induced perovskite-to-brownmillerite reversible phase transformation in La 2/3 Sr 1/3 MnO 3 films capped with oxygen deficient SrTiO 3–δ (100) layers of varying thickness.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
NASA NTRS2010

EPR Imaging at a Few Megahertz Using SQUID Detectors

An apparatus being developed for electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging operates in the resonance-frequency range of about 1 to 2 MHz well below the microwave frequencies used in conventional EPR. Until now, in order to obtain sufficient signal-to-noise radios (SNRs) in conventional EPR, it has been necessary to place both detectors and objects to be imaged inside resonant microwave cavities. EPR imaging has much in common with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is described briefly in the immediately preceding article. In EPR imaging as in MRI, one applies a magnetic pulse to make magnetic moments (in this case, of electrons) precess in an applied magnetic field having a known gradient. The magnetic moments precess at a resonance frequency proportional to the strength of the local magnetic field. One detects the decaying resonance-frequency magnetic- field component associated with the precession. Position is encoded by use of the known relationship between the resonance frequency and the position dependence of the magnetic field. EPR imaging has recently been recognized as an important tool for non-invasive, in vivo imaging of free radicals and reduction/oxidization metabolism. However, for in vivo EPR imaging of humans and large animals, the conventional approach is not suitable because (1) it is difficult to design and construct resonant cavities large enough and having the required shapes; (2) motion, including respiration and heartbeat, can alter the resonance frequency; and (3) most microwave energy is absorbed in the first few centimeters of tissue depth, thereby potentially endangering the subject and making it impossible to obtain adequate signal strength for imaging at greater depth. To obtain greater penetration depth, prevent injury to the subject, and avoid the difficulties associated with resonant cavities, it is necessary to use lower resonance frequencies. An additional advantage of using lower resonance frequencies is that one can use weaker applied magnetic fields: For example, for a resonance frequency of 1.4 MHz, one needs a magnetic flux density of 0.5 Gauss approximately the flux density of the natural magnetic field of the Earth.

Hahn, Inseob↗