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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2014

The role of radiative reabsorption on the electron energy distribution functions in H{sub 2}/He plasma expansion through a tapered nozzle

A collisional-radiative model for the H{sub 2}/He plasma, coupled to a Boltzmann solver for the free electron kinetics is used to investigate the non-equilibrium conditions created in the expansion of an high-temperature plasma flow through a converging-diverging nozzle, starting from the steady state composition at T{sub 0}=10 000 K and p{sub 0}=1 atm in the reservoir. It is shown that the plasma optical thickness plays a major role on the evolution of macroscopic quantities and internal distributions along the nozzle axis. Structured electron energy distribution functions, characterized by long plateaux and humps, are created due to superelastic collisions of cold electrons and electronically excited atomic hydrogen. The magnitudes of the plateaux are orders of magnitude higher in an optically thick plasma compared with a thin plasma, while the electron-electron collisions play a role in smoothing the peaks created by superelastic collisions between cold electrons and H(n>2)

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2014

Investigation on the negative bias illumination stress-induced instability of amorphous indium-tin-zinc-oxide thin film transistors

The quantitative analysis of mechanism on negative bias illumination stress (NBIS)-induced instability of amorphous indium-tin-zinc-oxide thin-film transistor (TFT) was suggested along with the effect of equivalent oxide thickness (EOT) of gate insulator. The analysis was implemented through combining the experimentally extracted density of subgap states and the device simulation. During NBIS, it was observed that the thicker EOT causes increase in both the shift of threshold voltage and the variation of subthreshold swing as well as the hump-like feature in a transfer curve. We found that the EOT-dependence of NBIS instability can be clearly explicated with the donor creation model, in which a larger amount of valence band tail states is transformed into either the ionized oxygen vacancy V{sub O}{sup 2+} or peroxide O{sub 2}{sup 2−} with the increase of EOT. It was also found that the V{sub O}{sup 2+}-related extrinsic factor accounts for 80%–92% of the total donor creation taking place in the valence band tail states while the rest is taken by the O{sub 2}{sup 2–} related intrinsic factor. The ratio of extrinsic factor compared to the total donor creation also increased with the increase of EOT, which could be explained by more prominent oxygen deficiency. The key founding of our work certainly represents that the established model should be considered very effective for analyzing the instability of the post-indium-gallium-zinc-oxide (IGZO) ZnO-based compound semiconductor TFTs with the mobility, which is much higher than those of a-IGZO TFTs.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2015

Two-color two-photon excited fluorescence of indole: Determination of wavelength-dependent molecular parameters

We present a detailed study of two-color two-photon excited fluorescence in indole dissolved in propylene glycol. Femtosecond excitation pulses at effective wavelengths from 268 to 293.33 nm were used to populate the two lowest indole excited states {sup 1}L{sub a} and {sup 1}L{sub b} and polarized fluorescence was then detected. All seven molecular parameters and the two-photon polarization ratio Ω containing information on two-photon absorption dynamics, molecular lifetime τ{sub f}, and rotation correlation time τ{sub rot} have been determined from experiment and analyzed as a function of the excitation wavelength. The analysis of the experimental data has shown that {sup 1}L{sub b}–{sup 1}L{sub a} inversion occurred under the conditions of our experiment. The two-photon absorption predominantly populated the {sup 1}L{sub a} state at all excitation wavelengths but in the 287–289 nm area which contained an absorption hump of the {sup 1}L{sub b} state 0-0 origin. The components of the two-photon excitation tensor S were analyzed giving important information on the principal tensor axes and absorption symmetry. The results obtained are in a good agreement with the results reported by other groups. The lifetime τ{sub f} and the rotation correlation time τ{sub rot} showed no explicit dependence on the effective excitation wavelength. Their calculated weighted average values were found to be τ{sub f} = 3.83 ± 0.14 ns and τ{sub rot} = 0.74 ± 0.06 ns.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2015

Properties of solitary kinetic Alfvén wave in a plasma with non-extensive electrons

The properties of solitary kinetic Alfvén waves (SKAWs) in a finite β plasma with three dimensional non-extensive electrons are investigated. Numerical results show that there only exists sub-Alfvénic hump type SKAW. The down limit of the Alfvén Mach number M{sub z} for the existence of SKAW increases with the increase of β. Whereas, it varies non-monotonously with respect to electron nonextensive parameter q for a given β. In the range of M{sub z} where SKAWs exist for different values of q, a bigger q results in a denser soliton structure, making the magnitude of the static electric field along the background magnetic field enhanced. However, the dependence of the amplitudes of the perpendicular magnetic and electric field on q is non-monotonous.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

Ion energies in high power impulse magnetron sputtering with and without localized ionization zones

High speed imaging of high power impulse magnetron sputtering discharges has revealed that ionization is localized in moving ionization zones but localization disappears at high currents for high yield targets. This offers an opportunity to study the effect ionization zones have on ion energies. We measure that ions have generally higher energies when ionization zones are present, supporting the concept that these zones are associated with moving potential humps. We propose that the disappearance of ionization zones is caused by an increased supply of atoms from the target which cools electrons and reduces depletion of atoms to be ionized.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2015

Effect of electrode spacing on the density distributions of electrons, ions, and metastable and radical molecules in SiH{sub 4}/NH{sub 3}/N{sub 2}/He capacitively coupled plasmas

Semiconductor fabrication often requires the deposition of hydrogenated silicon nitride (SiN{sub x}H{sub y}) film using SiH{sub 4}/NH{sub 3}/N{sub 2}/He capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) discharge. As analysis of the discharge geometry is essential to understanding CCP deposition, the effect of electrode spacing on the two-dimensional distributions of electrons, ions, and metastable and radical molecules was analyzed numerically using a fluid model. The simulation shows that the spatial variations in the ionization rates near the sheath become more obvious as the electrode spacing increases. In addition, as molecule-molecule gas-phase reactions are significantly affected by the local residence time, large electrode spacings are associated with significant volumetric losses for positive ions. Consequently, an increase of the electrode spacing leads axial density profiles of ions to change from bell shaped to double humped. However, NH{sub 4}{sup +} persistently maintains a bell-shaped axial density profile regardless of the degree of electrode spacing. We set the mole fraction of NH{sub 3} to only 1% of the total flow at the inlet, but NH{sub 4}{sup +} is the most abundant positive ion at the large electrode spacings. As the gas flow can transport the radicals around the space between the electrodes, we found that radical density distribution shifts toward the grounded electrode. The shift becomes pronounced as the electrode spacing increases. Finally, to validate our model, we compared the calculated deposition rate profile with the experimental data obtained along the wafer radius. According to our numerical results, the SiN{sub x}H{sub y} deposition rate decreases by approximately 16% when the electrode spacing increases from 9 to 20 mm.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2015

Electron collisions with methyl-substituted ethylenes: Cross section measurements and calculations for 2-methyl–2-butene and 2,3-dimethyl–2-butene

We report electron-scattering cross sections determined for 2-methyl–2-butene [(H{sub 3}C)HC = C(CH{sub 3}){sub 2}] and 2,3-dimethyl–2-butene [(H{sub 3}C){sub 2}C = C(CH{sub 3}){sub 2}] molecules. Absolute grand-total cross sections (TCSs) were measured for incident electron energies in the 0.5–300 eV range, using a linear electron-transmission technique. The experimental TCS energy dependences for the both targets appear to be very similar with respect to the shape. In each TCS curve, three features are discernible: the resonant-like structure located around 2.6–2.7 eV, the broad distinct enhancement peaking near 8.5 eV, and a weak hump in the vicinity of 24 eV. Theoretical integral elastic (ECS) and ionization (ICS) cross sections were computed up to 3 keV by means of the additivity rule (AR) approximation and the binary-encounter-Bethe method, respectively. Their sums, (ECS+ICS), are in a reasonable agreement with the respective measured TCSs. To examine the effect of methylation of hydrogen sides in the ethylene [H{sub 2}C = CH{sub 2}] molecule on the TCS, we compared the TCS energy curves for the sequence of methylated ethylenes: propene [H{sub 2}C = CH(CH{sub 3})], 2-methylpropene [H{sub 2}C = C(CH{sub 3}){sub 2}], 2-methyl–2-butene [(H{sub 3}C)HC = C(CH{sub 3}){sub 2}], and 2,3-dimethyl–2-butene [(H{sub 3}C){sub 2}C = C(CH{sub 3}){sub 2}], measured in the same laboratory. Moreover, the isomeric effect is also discussed for the C{sub 5}H{sub 10} and C{sub 6}H{sub 12} compounds.

2-METHYLPROPENE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Soliton radiation beat analysis of optical pulses generated from two continuous-wave lasers

We propose a fibre-based approach for generation of optical frequency combs (OFCs) with the aim of calibration of astronomical spectrographs in the low and medium-resolution range. This approach includes two steps: in the first step, an appropriate state of optical pulses is generated and subsequently moulded in the second step delivering the desired OFC. More precisely, the first step is realised by injection of two continuous-wave (CW) lasers into a conventional single-mode fibre, whereas the second step generates a broad OFC by using the optical solitons generated in step one as initial condition. We investigate the conversion of a bichromatic input wave produced by two initial CW lasers into a train of optical solitons, which happens in the fibre used as step one. Especially, we are interested in the soliton content of the pulses created in this fibre. For that, we study different initial conditions (a single cosine-hump, an Akhmediev breather, and a deeply modulated bichromatic wave) by means of soliton radiation beat analysis and compare the results to draw conclusion about the soliton content of the state generated in the first step. In case of a deeply modulated bichromatic wave, we observed the formation of a collective soliton crystal for low input powers and the appearance of separated solitons for high input powers. An intermediate state showing the features of both, the soliton crystal and the separated solitons, turned out to be most suitable for the generation of OFC for the purpose of calibration of astronomical spectrographs.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2015

Structural changes of small amplitude kinetic Alfvén solitary waves due to second-order corrections

The structural changes of kinetic Alfvén solitary waves (KASWs) due to higher-order terms are investigated. While the first-order differential equation for KASWs provides the dispersion relation for kinetic Alfvén waves, the second-order differential equation describes the structural changes of the solitary waves due to higher-order nonlinearity. The reductive perturbation method is used to obtain the second-order and third-order partial differential equations; then, Kodama and Taniuti's technique [J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 45, 298 (1978)] is applied in order to remove the secularities in the third-order differential equations and derive a linear second-order inhomogeneous differential equation. The solution to this new second-order equation indicates that, as the amplitude increases, the hump-type Korteweg-de Vries solution is concentrated more around the center position of the soliton and that dip-type structures form near the two edges of the soliton. This result has a close relationship with the interpretation of the complex KASW structures observed in space with satellites.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2015

A comparative study of capacitively coupled HBr/He, HBr/Ar plasmas for etching applications: Numerical investigation by fluid model

Fluid model has been applied to perform a comparative study of hydrogen bromide (HBr)/He and HBr/Ar capacitively coupled plasma discharges that are being used for anisotropic etching process. This model has been used to identify the most dominant species in HBr based plasmas. Our simulation results show that the neutral species like H and Br, which are the key player in chemical etching, have bell shape distribution, while ions like HBr{sup +}, Br{sup +}, which play a dominant rule in the physical etching, have double humped distribution and show peaks near electrodes. It was found that the dilution of HBr by Ar and/or He results in an increase in electron density and electron temperature, which results in more ionization and dissociation and hence higher densities of neutral and charged species can be achieved. The ratio of positive ion flux to the neutral flux increases with an increase in additive gas fraction. Compare to HBr/He plasma, the HBr/Ar plasma shows a maximum change in the ion density and flux and hence the etching rate can be considered in the ion-assisted and in the ion-flux etch regime in HBr/Ar discharge. The densities of electron and other dominant species in HBr/Ar plasma are higher than those of HBr/He plasma. The densities and fluxes of the active neutrals and positive ions for etching and subsequently chemical etching versus physical sputtering in HBr/Ar and HBr/He plasmas discharge can be controlled by tuning gas mixture ratio and the desire etching can be achieved.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2016

Non-linear dielectric signatures of entropy changes in liquids subject to time dependent electric fields

A model of non-linear dielectric polarization is studied in which the field induced entropy change is the source of polarization dependent retardation time constants. Numerical solutions for the susceptibilities of the system are obtained for parameters that represent the dynamic and thermodynamic behavior of glycerol. The calculations for high amplitude sinusoidal fields show a significant enhancement of the steady state loss for frequencies below that of the low field loss peak. Also at relatively low frequencies, the third harmonic susceptibility spectrum shows a “hump,” i.e., a maximum, with an amplitude that increases with decreasing temperature. Both of these non-linear effects are consistent with experimental evidence. While such features have been used to conclude on a temperature dependent number of dynamically correlated particles, N{sub corr}, the present result demonstrates that the third harmonic susceptibility display a peak with an amplitude that tracks the variation of the activation energy in a model that does not involve dynamical correlations or spatial scales.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2018

Communication: xDH double hybrid functionals can be qualitatively incorrect for non-equilibrium geometries: Dipole moment inversion and barriers to radical-radical association using XYG3 and XYGJ-OS

Here, double hybrid (DH) density functionals are amongst the most accurate density functional approximations developed so far, largely due to the incorporation of correlation effects from unoccupied orbitals via second order perturbation theory (PT2). The xDH family of DH functionals calculate energy directly from orbitals optimized by a lower level approach like B3LYP, without self-consistent optimization. XYG3 and XYGJ-OS are two widely used xDH functionals that are known to be quite accurate at equilibrium geometries. Here, we show that the XYG3 and XYGJ-OS functionals can be ill behaved for stretched bonds well beyond the Coulson-Fischer point, predicting unphysical dipole moments and humps in potential energy curves for some simple systems like the hydrogen fluoride molecule. Numerical experiments and analysis show that these failures are not due to PT2. Instead, a large mismatch at stretched bond-lengths between the reference B3LYP orbitals and the optimized orbitals associated with the non-PT2 part of XYG3 leads to an unphysically large non-Hellman-Feynman contribution to first order properties like forces and electron densities.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Analytical model for balling defects in laser melting using rivulet theory and solidification

In laser welding and additive manufacturing communities, the balling (humping) defect is primarily attributed to the Plateau–Rayleigh fluid instability (PRI) with a few authors suggesting fluid jetting and volume conservation as alternative mechanisms. As analytical descriptions of these mechanisms are unavailable, combining them into a single formalism is unfeasible. We present a new model of PRI with higher accuracy, accounting for competition with solidification, to compare the expected behavior with known experimental trends when fluid jetting is neglected. We adapt a rivulet instability model from fluid physics to account for the stabilizing effects of the substrate, which the traditional cylindrical-jet geometry does not account for and estimate the instability growth rate. Our model yields a continuous transition from non-balling to balling hitherto lacking in current literature and predicts instability growth at higher wavelengths with strong sensitivity to the solidification front curvature. While the fluid surface is most unstable for shallow melt pools, the absolute magnitude of balling relevant to printing defects scales with melt pool depth and has a maximum for a given melt pool geometry. Synchrotron-based x-ray radiography of thin samples indicates that PRI growth rates and solidification can be comparable in magnitude and thus compete, as we find in this work. We predict that deviations between model predictions and our experimental results demonstrate the importance of fluid flows and heat transport in the balling process. Our experiments further demonstrate at least one mechanism by which the melt pool length and the balling wavelength are not equivalent, as commonly claimed.

Taylor, Z. [Stanford Univ., CA (United States); SL↗
DOE OSTI2013

THE MASS OF THE BLACK HOLE IN XTE J1118+480

We present contemporaneous, broadband, near-infrared spectroscopy (0.9-2.45 {mu}m) and H-band photometry of the black hole X-ray binary, XTE J1118+480. We determined the fractional dilution of the NIR ellipsoidal light curves of the donor star from other emission sources in the system by comparing the absorption features in the spectrum with field stars of known spectral type. We constrained the donor star spectral type to K7 V-M1 V and determined that the donor star contributed 54% {+-} 27% of the H-band flux at the epoch of our observations. This result underscores the conclusion that the donor star cannot be assumed to be the only NIR emission source in quiescent X-ray binaries. The H-band light curve shows a double-humped asymmetric modulation with extra flux at orbital phase 0.75. The light curve was fitted with a donor star model light curve, taking into account a constant second flux component based on the dilution analysis. We also fitted models that included emission from the donor star, a constant component from the accretion disk, and a phase-variable component from the bright spot where the mass accretion stream impacts the disk. These simple models with reasonable estimates for the component physical parameters can fully account for the observed light curve, including the extra emission at phase 0.75. From our fits, we constrained the binary inclination to 68 Degree-Sign {<=} i {<=} 79 Degree-Sign . This leads to a black hole mass of 6.9 M{sub Sun} {<=} M{sub BH} {<=} 8.2 M{sub Sun }. Long-term variations in the NIR light curve shape in XTE J1118+480 are similar to those seen in other X-ray binaries and demonstrate the presence of continued activity and variability in these systems even when in full quiescence.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2013

TIME-RESOLVED SPECTROSCOPY OF THE POLAR EU CANCRI IN THE OPEN CLUSTER MESSIER 67

We present time-resolved spectroscopic and polarimetric observations of the AM Her system EU Cnc. EU Cnc is located near the core of the old open cluster Messier 67; new proper motion measurements indicate that EU Cnc is indeed a member of the star cluster, and this system therefore is useful to constrain the formation and evolution of magnetic cataclysmic variables. The spectra exhibit two-component emission features with independent radial velocity variations as well as time-variable cyclotron emission indicating a magnetic field strength of 41 MG. The period of the radial velocity and cyclotron hump variations are consistent with the previously known photometric period, and the spectroscopic flux variations are consistent in amplitude with previous photometric amplitude measurements. The secondary star is also detected in the spectrum. We also present polarimetric imaging measurements of EU Cnc that show a clear detection of polarization, and the degree of polarization drops below our detection threshold at phases when the cyclotron emission features are fading or not evident. The combined data are all consistent with the interpretation that EU Cnc is a low-state polar in the cluster Messier 67. The mass function of the system gives an estimate of the accretor mass of M{sub WD} {>=} 0.68 M{sub Sun} with M{sub WD} Almost-Equal-To 0.83 M{sub Sun} for an average inclination. We are thus able to place a lower limit on the progenitor mass of the accreting white dwarf of {>=}1.43 M{sub Sun }.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2014

First detection of multi-shocks in RR Lyrae stars from Antarctica : A possible explanation of the Blazhko effect

We present the first detection of multi-shocks propagating through the atmosphere of the Blazhko star S Arae using uninterrupted, accurate optical photometric data collected during one polar night, 150 days from Antarctica at Dome C, with the Photometer AntarctIca eXtinction (PAIX). We acquired 89,736 CCD frames during 323 pulsation cycles and 3 Blazhko cycles. We detected two new light curve properties in the PAIX light curve, jump and rump, which we associated with two new post-maximum shock waves Sh{sub PM1} and Sh{sub PM2}. jump, lump, rump, bump, and hump are induced by five shock waves, with different amplitudes and origins, Sh{sub PM1}, Sh{sub PM}, Sh{sub PM2}, Sh{sub PM3}, and the main shock Sh{sub H+He}. Correlations between the length of rise time and light amplitude and Sh{sub PM3} are monotonous during three Blazhko cycles, but the pulsation curve is double peaked. We discuss the physical mechanisms driving the modulation of these quantities. Finally, we hypothesize that the origin of the Blazhko effect is a dynamical interaction between a multi-shock structure and an outflowing wind in a coronal structure.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

THE SUZAKU VIEW OF 3C 382

We present a long (116 ks) Suzaku observation of the broad-line radio galaxy (BLRG) 3C 382 acquired in 2007 April. A Swift BAT spectrum in 15-200 keV from the 58 month survey is also analyzed, together with an archival XMM-Newton EPIC exposure of 20 ks obtained one year after Suzaku. Our main result is the finding with Suzaku of a broad Fe K line with a relativistic profile consistent with emission from an accretion disk at tens of gravitational radii from the central black hole. The XIS data indicate emission from highly ionized iron and allow us to set tight, albeit model-dependent, constraints on the inner and outer radii of the disk reflecting region, r{sub in} {approx_equal} 10 r{sub g} and r{sub out} {approx_equal} 20 r{sub g} , respectively, and on the disk inclination, i {approx_equal} 30{sup 0}. Two ionized reflection components are possibly observed, with similar contributions of {approx}10% to the total continuum-a highly ionized one, with log{xi} {approx_equal} 3 erg s{sup -1} cm, which successfully models the relativistic line, and a mildly ionized one, with log{xi} {approx_equal} 1.5 erg s{sup -1} cm, which models the narrow Fe K{alpha} and high energy hump. When both these components are included, there is no further requirement for an additional blackbody soft excess below 2 keV. The Suzaku data confirm the presence of a warm absorber previously known from grating studies. After accounting for all the spectral features, the intrinsic photon index of the X-ray continuum is {Gamma}{sub x} {approx_equal} 1.8 with a cutoff energy at {approx}200 keV, consistent with Comptonization models and excluding jet-related emission up to these energies. Comparison of the X-ray properties of 3C 382 and other BLRGs to Seyferts recently observed with Suzaku and BAT confirms the idea that the distinction between radio-loud and radio-quiet active galactic nucleus at X-rays is blurred. The two classes form a continuum distribution in terms of X-ray photon index, reflection strength, and Fe K line width (related to the disk emission radius), with BLRGs clustered at one end of the distribution. This points to a common structure of the central engine, with only a few fundamental parameter(s) responsible for the radio-loud/radio-quiet division. The black hole spin, and in particular its rotation compared to the disk's, may be a key one.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2012

PANCHROMATIC OBSERVATIONS OF THE TEXTBOOK GRB 110205A: CONSTRAINING PHYSICAL MECHANISMS OF PROMPT EMISSION AND AFTERGLOW

We present a comprehensive analysis of a bright, long-duration (T{sub 90} {approx} 257 s) GRB 110205A at redshift z = 2.22. The optical prompt emission was detected by Swift/UVOT, ROTSE-IIIb, and BOOTES telescopes when the gamma-ray burst (GRB) was still radiating in the {gamma}-ray band, with optical light curve showing correlation with {gamma}-ray data. Nearly 200 s of observations were obtained simultaneously from optical, X-ray, to {gamma}-ray (1 eV to 5 MeV), which makes it one of the exceptional cases to study the broadband spectral energy distribution during the prompt emission phase. In particular, we clearly identify, for the first time, an interesting two-break energy spectrum, roughly consistent with the standard synchrotron emission model in the fast cooling regime. Shortly after prompt emission ({approx}1100 s), a bright (R = 14.0) optical emission hump with very steep rise ({alpha} {approx} 5.5) was observed, which we interpret as the reverse shock (RS) emission. It is the first time that the rising phase of an RS component has been closely observed. The full optical and X-ray afterglow light curves can be interpreted within the standard reverse shock (RS) + forward shock (FS) model. In general, the high-quality prompt and afterglow data allow us to apply the standard fireball model to extract valuable information, including the radiation mechanism (synchrotron), radius of prompt emission (R{sub GRB} {approx} 3 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 13} cm), initial Lorentz factor of the outflow ({Gamma}{sub 0} {approx} 250), the composition of the ejecta (mildly magnetized), the collimation angle, and the total energy budget.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗