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NASA NTRS1983

A preliminary global oceanic cloud climatology from satellite albedo observations

A predictive relationship is developed between over-ocean cloud system albedo and the cloud amount present, using as a data base ERB satellite microwave readings at 0.5-0.7 micron and the USAF three-dimensional nephanalysis archive. The ERB data provided global coverage at a resolution of 2.5 x 2.5 deg during the 1974-78 period. Regression analyses were performed on the amounts and albedos for several years of data for one month in order to detect seasonal variations. A logarithmic relationship was found between the cloud system albedo and cloud amount over the oceans, with negligible seasonal variance. The analysis is noted to apply only where low surface albedos are encountered, and further work to extend the study to continental vegetated areas is indicated.

Hughes, N. A.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Slant-lidar aerosol extinction measurements and their relation to measured and calculated albedo changes

Lidar and albedo data for a single day on which aerosols increased the surface plus atmospheric albedo above values measured on two surrounding very clean days are presented. The slant-lidar extinction measurement technique used is described along with the equipment and operating procedures. The derivation of optical depths, backscatter-to-extinction ratios, and extinction profiles is addressed, and the use of the lidar-derived optical depths in calculating expected albedo change is considered. Measured and calculated albedo changes are compared, and the results are found to agree within experimental uncertainties.

Russell, P. B.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Measuring planetary neutron albedo fluxes by remote gamma-ray sensing

In order to measure the planetary neutron albedo fluxes, a neutron-absorbing shield which emits gamma rays of characteristic energy and serves as a neutron detector, is added to a gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS). The gamma rays representing the neutron flux are observed against interference consisting of cosmic gamma rays, planetary continuum and line emission, and gamma rays arising from the interaction of cosmic rays with the GRS and the spacecraft. The uncertainty and minimum detection limits in neutron albedo fluxes are calculated for two missions, a lunar orbiter and a comet nucleus rendezvous. A GRS on a lunar orbiter at 100 km altitude detects a thermal neutron albedo flux as low as 0.002/sq cm/s and an expected flux of about 0.6/sq cm/s is measured with an uncertainty of 0.001/sq cm/s, for a 100 h observation period. For the comet nucleus, again in a 100 h observing period, a thermal neutron albedo flux is detected at a level of 0.006/sq cm/s and an expected flux of about 0.4/sq cm/s is measured with an uncertainty of 0.004/sq cm/s. The expanded geological capabilities made possible by this technique include improvements in H sensitivity, spatial resolution, and measurement depth; and an improved model of induced gamma-ray emission.

Haines, E. L.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Comparison of ERBE inferred and model computed clear-sky albedos

Over-ocean clear-sky albedos measured with instruments on the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) are compared with albedos simulated using a radiative transfer model (RTM). The comparison covers the monthly mean albedos for November 1984. The ERBS albedo was calculated with a scene identification algorithm. Techniques used to suppress cloud cover uncertainties are discussed. The plane-parallel delta-Eddington RTM accounted for O3, O2, CO2 and H2O gaseous absorption and background aerosol absorption.

Briegleb, B. P.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Seasonal albedo of an urban/rural landscape from satellite observations

Using data from 27 calibrated Landsat observations of the Hartford, Connecticut area, the spatial distribution and seasonal variation of surface reflectance and albedo were examined. Mean values of visible reflectance, near-IR reflectance, and albedo are presented (for both snow-free and snow-cover observations) according to 14 land use/land cover categories. A diversity of albedo values was found to exist in this type of environment, associated with land cover. Many land-cover categories display a seasonal dependence, with intracategory seasonal differences being of comparable magnitude to intercategory differences. Key factors in determining albedo (and its seasonal dynamics) are the presence or absence of vegetation and the canopy structure. Snow-cover/snow-free differences range from a few percent (for urban land covers) to over 40 percent (for low-canopy vegetation).

Brest, Christopher L.↗

NASA NTRS1987

The ultraviolet spectral albedo of planet earth

The solar backscattered ultraviolet spectral radiometer on the Nimbus 7 satellite provides a unique set of radiation measurements which allows an evaluation of the spectral albedo of the earth and its atmosphere in the wavelength range 300 to 340 nm. Near 340 nm, the derived spectral albedo expressed as a function of latitude and month exceeds that in the visible part of the spectrum, with values near 45 percent existing equatorward of 30 deg and an increase to 60-80 percent toward the poles. At middle to high latitudes, the monthly mean spectral albedo exceeds the contribution from Rayleigh scattering alone by factors of 1.4 to 2.2. At wavelengths from 300 to 310 nm, where absorption by stratospheric ozone is significant, the daylight averaged spectral albedos receive negligible contribution from scattering by tropospheric clouds, yet the derived values exceed those predicted for Rayleigh scattering from a clean stratosphere. These observations are consistent with the presence of an atmospheric scattering layer, distinct from cloudiness, located at an altitude above the tropopause.

Frederick, John E.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Influence of polar-cap albedo on past and current Martian climate

The finding that the observed albedo of the Martian polar caps increase with increasing isolation is reviewed. Models of the Martian climate system are greatly stabilized when an insolation-dependent frost albedo instead of a constant albedo is used in the energy budget. The authors views on microphysics of the process is then presented. Long term climate models must account for the variability of CO2 frost albedo.

Kieffer, Hugh H.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Diurnal variability of the planetary albedo - An appraisal with satellite measurements and general circulation models

An atmospheric radiation model is used here to illustrate several features associated with modeling the diurnal cycle of the planetary albedo. It is found that even for clear regions there appear to be deficiencies in our knowledge of how to model this quantity. The diurnal amplitude factor, defined as the ratio of the diurnally averaged planetary albedo to that at noon, between two GCMs and measurements made from a geostationary satellite. While reasonable consistency is found, the comparisons underscore difficulties associated with converting local-time albedo measurements, as made from sun-synchronous satellites, to diurnally averaged albedos.

Potter, G. L.↗

NASA NTRS1989

Interpretation of surface and planetary directional albedos for vegetated regions

An atmospheric solar radiation model has been coupled with surface reflectance measurements for two vegetation types, pasture land and savannah, in order to address several issues associated with understanding the directional planetary albedo; i.e., the dependence of planetary albedo upon solar zenith angle. These include an elucidation of processes that influence the variation of planetary albedo with solar zenith angle, as well as emphasizing potential problems associated with converting narrowband planetary albedo measurements to broadband quantities. It is suggested that, for vegetated surfaces, this latter task could be somewhat formidable, since the model simulations indicate that narrowband to broadband conversions strongly depend upon vegetation type. A further aspect of this paper is to illustrate a procedure by which reciprocity inconsistencies within a bidirectional reflectance dataset, if they are not too severe, can be circumvented.

Cess, Robert D.↗

NASA NTRS1990

The albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Uranus, as determined from Voyager IRIS data

The albedo, T(eff), and energy balance of Uranus are presently derived from Voyager IR Spectrometer and Radiometer data. By obtaining the absolute phase curve of Uranus, it has become possible to evaluate the Bond albedo without making separate determinations of the geometric albedo and phase integral. An orbital mean value for the bolometric Bond albedo of 0.3 + or - 0.049 yields an equilibrium temperature of 58.2 + or - 1.0 K. Thermal spectra from pole-to-pole latitude coverage establish a T(eff) of 59.1 + or - 0.3 K, leading to an energy balance of 1.06 + or - 0.08 for Uranus.

Pearl, J. C.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Model test of CCN-cloud albedo climate forcing

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) influence cloud albedo through their effect on the cloud droplet size distribution. A number of studies have evaluated the climatic impact of the CCN-cloud albedo feedback, but all have assumed that cloud distributions, cloud thicknesses, and cloud liquid water contents would remain constant as the climate adjusted. This assumption has been tested using the Livermore version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model. The results indicate that there are no significant compensating changes in cloud properties that would counteract the 1.7 percent global albedo increase resulting from a fourfold increase in marine CCN concentration. Furthermore, when ocean surface temperatures are decreased 4 C in a manner broadly consistent with the enhanced cloud albedos, an increase in cloud fraction of 3.5 percent and a reduction in cloud altitude are predicted, leading to a positive feedback from clouds that would imply a climate impact roughly double that calculated from cloud droplet size distribution change alone.

Ghan, S. J.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Mars seasonal CO2 ice lifetimes and the angular dependence of albedo

The albedo of the polar caps on Mars brightens appreciably at high solar zenith angle (Warren et al., J. Geophys. Res., 95, 14717, 1990), an effect not included in prior polar-cap energy-balance models. This decreases absorption of sunlight by the polar cap, hence decreasing sublimation of CO2 ice. Lindner (J. Geophys. Res., 95, 1367, 1990) has shown that the radiative effects of clouds and airborne dust will increase sublimation of CO2 ice over that predicted by prior polar-cap energy-balance models. Furthermore, observations hint that more clouds may exist in the Northern Hemisphere, which Lindner (1990) has shown would sublime CO2 ice more quickly in the north than in the south. I show here that the effects of the solar zenith angle dependence of albedo and the radiative effects of clouds and dust offset each other, but act to extend the lifetime of CO2 ice on the south pole more than on the north pole, possibly explaining the observed hemispherical asymmetry in the residual polar caps without the need of a hemispherical asymmetry in polar-cap albedo required by prior models. Another positive aspect of this solution is that neither the inclusion of the solar zenith angle dependence of albedo nor the radiative effects of clouds and dust should appreciably change prior model agreement with observations of the annual cycle of surface pressure and the recession of the polar caps equatorward of 75 degrees latitude.

Lindner, Bernhard Lee↗

NASA NTRS1990

A quantification of errors in surface albedo due to common assumptions

A study comparing the performance of three approaches to estimating the spectral albedo of a typical land surface is presented. The most accurate albedo estimates under all atmospheric situations are those for which the scattering properties of the atmosphere can be used. Simply utilizing the direct-to-total ratio as a weight between direct and Lambertian albedos reduced the errors in broadband albedo to less than one percent for almost all simulated atmospheric conditions.

Arduini, Robert F.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Estimation of shortwave hemispherical reflectance (albedo) from bidirectionally reflected radiance data

An equation for estimating albedo from bidirectional reflectance data is proposed. The estimates of albedo are found to be greater than values obtained with simultaneous pyranometer measurements. Particular attention is given to potential sources of systematic errors including extrapolation of bidirectional reflectance data out to a view zenith angle of 90 deg, the use of inappropriate weighting coefficients in the numerator of the albedo equation, surface shadowing caused by the A-frame instrumentation used to measure the incoming and outgoing radiation fluxes, errors in estimates of the denominator of the proposed albedo equation, and a 'hot spot' contribution in bidirectional data measured by a modular multiband radiometer.

Starks, Patrick J.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Natural versus anthropogenic factors affecting low-level cloud albedo over the North Atlantic

Cloud albedo plays a key role in regulating earth's climate. Cloud albedo depends on column-integrated liquid water content and the density of cloud condensation nuclei, which consists primarily of submicrometer-sized aerosol sulfate particles. A comparison of two independent satellite data sets suggests that, although anthropogenic sulfate emissions may enhance cloud albedo immediately adjacent to the east coast of the United States, over the central North Atlantic Ocean the variability in albedo can be largely accounted for by natural marine and atmospheric processes that probably have remained relatively constant since the beginning of the industrial revolution.

Falkowski, Paul G.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Arctic sea ice albedo - A comparison of two satellite-derived data sets

Spatial patterns of mean monthly surface albedo for May, June, and July, derived from DMSP Operational Line Scan (OLS) satellite imagery are compared with surface albedos derived from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Program (ISCCP) monthly data set. Spatial patterns obtained by the two techniques are in general agreement, especially for June and July. Nevertheless, systematic differences in albedo of 0.05 - 0.10 are noted which are most likely related to uncertainties in the simple parameterizations used in the DMSP analyses, problems in the ISCCP cloud-clearing algorithm and other modeling simplifications. However, with respect to the eventual goal of developing a reliable automated retrieval algorithm for compiling a long-term albedo data base, these initial comparisons are very encouraging.

Schweiger, Axel J.↗

NASA NTRS1993

A regional analysis of cloudy mean spherical albedo over the marine stratocumulus region and the tropical Atlantic Ocean

Since clouds are the largest variable in Earth's radiation budget, it is critical to determine both the spatial and temporal characteristics of their radiative properties. The relationships between cloud properties and cloud fraction are studied in order to supplement grid scale parameterizations. The satellite data used is from three hourly ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) and monthly ERBE (Earth Radiation Budget Experiment) data on a 2.5 deg x 2.5 deg latitude-longitude grid. Mean cloud spherical albedo, the mean optical depth distribution, and cloud fraction are examined and compared off the coast of California and the mid-tropical Atlantic for July 1987 and 1988. Individual grid boxes and spatial averages over several grid boxes are correlated to Coakley's theory of reflection for uniform and broken layered cloud and to Kedem, et al.'s findings that rainfall volume and fractional area of rain in convective systems is linear. Kedem's hypothesis can be expressed in terms of cloud properties. That is, the total volume of liquid in a box is a linear function of cloud fraction. Results for the marine stratocumulus regime indicate that albedo is often invariant for cloud fractions of 20% to 80%. Coakley's satellite model of small and large clouds with cores (1 km) and edges (100 m) is consistent with this observation. The cores maintain high liquid water concentrations and large droplets while the edges contain low liquid water concentrations and small droplets. Large clouds are just a collection of cores. The mean optical depth (TAU) distributions support the above observation with TAU values of 3.55 to 9.38 favored across all cloud fractions. From these results, a method based upon Kedem, et al's theory is proposed to separate the cloud fraction and liquid water path (LWP) calculations in a general circulation model (GCM). In terms of spatial averaging, a linear relationship between albedo and cloud fraction is observed. For tropical locations outside the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), results of cloud fraction and albedo spatial averaging followed that of the stratus boxes containing few overcast scenes. Both the ideas of Coakley and Kedem, et al. apply. Within the ITCZ, the grid boxes tended to have the same statistical properties as stratus boxes containing many overcast scenes. Because different dynamical forcing mechanisms are present, it is difficult to devise a method for determining subgrid scale variations. Neither of the theories proposed by Kedem, et al. or Coakley works well for the boxes with numerous overcast scenes.

Ginger, Kathryn M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Temporal and spatial mapping of surface albedo and atmospheric dust opacity on Mars

The Mariner 9 and Viking provided abundant evidence that eolian processes are active over much of the surface of Mars. Past studies have demonstrated that variations in regional albedo and wind-streak patterns are indicative of sediment transport through a region, while thermal inertia data (derived from the Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM) dataset) are indicative of the degree of surface mantling by dust deposits. The visual and thermal data are therefore diagnostic of whether net erosion or deposition of dust-storm fallout is taking place currently and whether such processes have been active in a region over the long term. These previous investigations, however, have not attempted to correct for the effects of atmospheric dust loading on observations of the martian surface, so quantitative studies of current sediment transport rates have included large errors due to uncertainty in the magnitude of this 'atmospheric component' of the observations. We have developed a radiative transfer model that allows the atmospheric dust opacity to be determined from IRTM thermal observations. Corrections for the effects of atmospheric dust loading on observations of surface albedo can also be modeled. This approach to determining 'dust-corrected surface albedo' incorporates the atmospheric dust opacity, the single-scattering albedo and particle phase function of atmospheric dust, and the bidirectional reflectance of the surface, and it accounts for variable lighting and viewing geometry.

Lee, S. W.↗