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Demonstration of rapid and sensitive module leak certification for Space Station Freedom

A leak detection and quantification demonstration using perflurocarbon tracer (PFT) technology was successfully performed at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center on January 25, 1991. The real-time Dual Trap Analyzer (DTA) at one-half hour after the start of the first run gave an estimated leak rate of 0.7 mL/min. This has since been refined to be 1.15 (+ or -) 0.09 mL/min. The leak rates in the next three runs were determined to be 9.8 (+ or -) 0.7, -0.4 (+ or -) 0.3, and 76 (+ or -) 6 mL/min, respectively. The theory on leak quantification in the steady-state and time-dependent modes for a single zone test facility was developed and applied to the above determinations. The laboratory PFT analysis system gave a limit-of-detection (LOD) of 0.05 fL for ocPDCH. This is the tracer of choice and is about 100-fold better than that for the DTA. Applied to leak certification, the LOD is about 0.00002 mL/s (0.000075 L/h), a 5 order-of-magnitude improvement over the original leak certification specification. Furthermore, this limit can be attained in a measurement period of 3 to 4 hours instead of days, weeks, or months. A new Leak Certification Facility is also proposed to provide for zonal (three zones) determination of leak rates. The appropriate multizone equations, their solutions, and error analysis have already been derived. A new concept of seal-integrity certification has been demonstrated for a variety of controlled leaks in the range of module leak testing. High structural integrity leaks were shown to have a linear dependence of flow on (Delta)p. The rapid determination of leak rates at different pressures is proposed and is to be determined while subjecting the module to other external force-generating parameters such as vibration, torque, solar intensity, etc.

Dietz, R. N.↗

Photochemically Synthesized Polyimides

An alternative to the conventional approach to synthesis of polyimides involves the use of single monomers that are amenable to photopolymerization. Heretofore, the synthesis of polyimides has involved multiple-monomer formulations and heating to temperatures that often exceed 250 C. The present alternative approach enables synthesis under relatively mild conditions that can include room temperature. The main disadvantages of the conventional approach are the following: Elevated production temperatures can lead to high production costs and can impart thermal stresses to the final products. If the proportions of the multiple monomeric ingredients in a given batch are not exactly correct, the molecular weight and other physical properties of the final material could be reduced from their optimum or desired values. To be useful in the alternative approach, a monomer must have a molecular structure tailored to exploit Diels-Alder trapping of a photochemically generated ortho-quinodimethane. (In a Diels-Alder reaction, a diene combines with a dienophile to form molecules that contain six-membered rings.) In particular, a suitable monomer (see figure) contains ortho-methylbenzophenone connected to a dienophile (in this case, a maleimide) through a generic spacer group. Irradiation with ultraviolet light gives rise to a photochemical intermediate the aforementioned ortho-quinodimethane from the ortho-methylbenzophenone. This group may react with the dienophile on another such monomer molecule to produce an oligomer that, in turn may react in a stepgrowth manner to produce a polyimide. This approach offers several advantages in addition to those mentioned above: The monomer can be stored for a long time because it remains unreactive until exposed to light. Because the monomer is the only active starting ingredient, there is no need for mixing, no concern for ensuring correct proportions of monomers, and the purity of the final product material is inherently high. The use of solvents is optional: The synthesis can be performed using the neat monomer or the monomer mixed with one or more solvent(s) in dilute or concentrated solution. The solubility of the monomer and the physical and chemical properties of the final polymer can be tailored through selection of the spacer group.

Meador, Michael A.↗

Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVI, Part 14

Contents include the following: Destruction of Presolar Silicates by Aqueous Alteration Observed in Murchison CM2 Chondrite. Generation of Chondrule Forming Shock Waves in Solar Nebula by X-Ray Flares. TEM and NanoSIMS Study of Hydrated/Anhydrous Phase Mixed IDPs: Cometary or Asteroidal Origin? Inflight Calibration of Asteroid Multiband Imaging Camera Onboard Hayabusa: Preliminary Results. Corundum and Corundum-Hibonite Grains Discovered by Cathodoluminescence in the Matrix of Acfer 094 Meteorite. Spatial Extent of a Deep Moonquake Nest A Preliminary Report of Reexamination. Modal Abundances of Carbon in Ureilites: Implications for the Petrogenesis of Ureilites. Trapped Noble Gas Components and Exposure History of the Enstatite Chondrite ALH84206. Deep-seated Crustal Material in Dhofar Lunar Meteorites: Evidence from Pyroxene Chemistry. Numerical Investigations of Kuiper Belt Binaries. Dust Devils on Mars: Effects of Surface Roughness on Particle Threshold. Hecates Tholus, Mars: Nighttime Aeolian Activity Suggested by Thermal Images and Mesoscale Atmospheric Model Simulations. Are the Apollo 14 High-Al Basalts Really Impact Melts? Garnet in the Lunar Mantle: Further Evidence from Volcanic Glass Beads. The Earth/Mars Dichotomy in Mg/Si and Al/Si Ratios: Is It Real? Dissecting the Polar Asymmetry in the Non-Condensable Gas Enhancement on Mars: A Numerical Modeling Study. Cassini VIMS Preliminary Exploration of Titan s Surface Hemispheric Albedo Dichotomy. An Improved Instrument for Investigating Planetary Regolith Microstructure. Isotopic Composition of Oxygen in Lunar Zircons Preliminary Design of Visualization Tool for Hayabusa Operation. Size and Shape Distributions of Chondrules and Metal Grains Revealed by X-Ray Computed Tomography Data. Properties of Permanently Shadowed Regolith. Landslides in Interior Layered Deposits, Valles Marineris, Mars: Effects of Water and Ground Shaking on Slope Stability. Mars: Recent and Episodic Volcanic, Hydrothermal, and Glacial Activity Revealed by Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). The Cratering Record of the Saturnian Satellites Phoebe, Tethys, Dione and Iapetus in Comparison: First Results from Analysis of the Cassini ISS Imaging Data. Joint Crossover Solutions of Altimetry and Image Data on 433 Eros. The Martian Soil as a Geochemical Sink for.

Source record↗

Behavior of a Salt Water Solution Near the Critical Point Under Microgravity Conditions

The Supercritical Water Mixture (SCWM) experiment conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) is designed to study a salt-water solution in the vicinity of the critical transition with a test cell filled with Na2SO4 (aq) 0.5-w. This salt is a Type II salt which undergoes a dramatic decrease in solubility past waters critical point. The paper discusses the liquid-vapor-salt distribution in the test cell for subcritical, trans-critical, and supercritical regimes. In 0-g, the vapor-liquid interface manifests itself by the presence of a large single vapor bubble that is flattened between the two windows. In contrast with pure water, the vapor bubble remains centered in the test cell and is stable for temperatures up to Tc - 50 mK. The processes leading to critical transition during heat-up, as marked by the break-up of the vapor bubble, depends on the applied heating rate. For temperature ramps 1 mKmin, the bubble interface begins to breakup with the formation of a large number of smaller bubbles. For larger temperature ramps (10mKmin), temperature gradients arise in the cell pushing the bubble toward a window surface. As the critical threshold is crossed small variations in cell temperature ( 1 mK) cause an observable spatial variation in density. However, this spatial variation is not discernible as the temperature is increased further into the supercritical regime. The salt precipitation in the vicinity of the critical crossing appears to be heterogeneous in nature with precipitates observable on the cell windows. Direct imaging as well as light scattering indicate a hexagonal structure of the precipitated salt crystals in the near critical regime. The salt deposition is not fully reversible as the temperature is reduced due to window corrosion effects which traps some of the precipitated salt. Critical temperatures as high as 1.9 K above the value for pure water (647.25 K) have been measured. Finally, results on the critical transition phenomena in the presence of an imposed temperature gradient, demonstrating the remarkable stability of the central bubble, are also presented.

near-critical↗

Oxygen Production from Lunar Regolith using Ionic Liquids

The objective of this work and future follow-on work is to develop a safe, efficient, and recyclable method for oxygen and/or metals extraction from lunar regolith, in support of establishing a manned lunar outpost. The approach is to solubilize the oxides that comprise lunar regolith in media consisting of ionic liquids (ILs) and/or their mixtures at temperatures at or below 300 C. Once in solution, electrolysis can either be performed in-situ to generate oxygen at the anode and hydrogen and/or metals (silicon, iron, aluminum, titanium, etc.) at the cathode. Alternatively, the water that is generated during the solubilization process can be distilled out and condensed into a separate IL and then electrolysized to produce hydrogen and oxygen. In the case of lunar regolith, this method could theoretically produce 44g oxygen per 100g of regolith. The oxygen can be used for human life support and/or as an oxidizer for rocket fuels, and the metals can be used as raw materials for construction and/or device fabrication. Moreover, the hydrogen produced can be used to re-generate the acidic medium, which can then be used to process additional regolith, thereby making the materials recyclable and limiting upmass requirements. An important advantage of IL acid systems is that they are much "greener" and safer than conventional materials used for regolith processing such as sulfuric or hydrochloric acids. They have very low vapor pressures, which means that they contain virtually no toxic and/or flammable volatile content, they are relatively non-corrosive, and they can exhibit good stability in harsh environments (extreme temperatures, hard vacuum, etc.). Furthermore, regolith processing can be achieved at lower temperatures than other processes such as molten oxide electrolysis or hydrogen reduction, thereby reducing initial power requirements. Six ILs have been synthesized and tested for their capability to dissolve lunar simulant, and for electrochemical and thermal stability. The results showed that ILs can be very efficient electrolytes; in particular IL/phosphoric-acid mixtures appear extremely promising for solubilizing lunar simulant. Results from preliminary experiments for distillation of water produced from the oxygen within the metal oxides of the simulant and the hydrogen from the acid indicates that over 75% of the oxygen from the simulant can be harvested as water at a temperature of 150 C. A method for collection of oxygen from electrolysis of the water derived from solubilizing simulant was developed by using a liquid nitrogen trap to liquefy and collect the oxygen. Although precise quantification of the liquid oxygen trapped is difficult to obtain, the amount of hydrogen and oxygen collected from electrolysis of water in this system was greater than 98%. This set-up also included a portable mass spectrometer for the identification of gases released from electrolysis cells. Regeneration of ILs through re-protonation was also demonstrated. Four sequential re-generations of an IL following solubilization of simulant showed no significant differences in amounts of simulant dissolved. Follow-on work for this project should include more studies of IL/phosphoric acid systems. Also, much more work is necessary for defining methods for electrolysis and purification of metals from regolith solubilized in ILs, and for developing a system to use the produced hydrogen to regenerate the spent IL. Finally, design and development of flight breadboard and prototype hardware is required.

Paley, Mark Steven↗

NIAC Phase II Orbiting Rainbows: Future Space Imaging with Granular Systems

Inspired by the light scattering and focusing properties of distributed optical assemblies in Nature, such as rainbows and aerosols, and by recent laboratory successes in optical trapping and manipulation, we propose a unique combination of space optics and autonomous robotic system technology, to enable a new vision of space system architecture with applications to ultra-lightweight space optics and, ultimately, in-situ space system fabrication. Typically, the cost of an optical system is driven by the size and mass of the primary aperture. The ideal system is a cloud of spatially disordered dust-like objects that can be optically manipulated: it is highly reconfigurable, fault-tolerant, and allows very large aperture sizes at low cost. This new concept is based on recent understandings in the physics of optical manipulation of small particles in the laboratory and the engineering of distributed ensembles of spacecraft swarms to shape an orbiting cloud of micron-sized objects. In the same way that optical tweezers have revolutionized micro- and nano-manipulation of objects, our breakthrough concept will enable new large scale NASA mission applications and develop new technology in the areas of Astrophysical Imaging Systems and Remote Sensing because the cloud can operate as an adaptive optical imaging sensor. While achieving the feasibility of constructing one single aperture out of the cloud is the main topic of this work, it is clear that multiple orbiting aerosol lenses could also combine their power to synthesize a much larger aperture in space to enable challenging goals such as exo-planet detection. Furthermore, this effort could establish feasibility of key issues related to material properties, remote manipulation, and autonomy characteristics of cloud in orbit. There are several types of endeavors (science missions) that could be enabled by this type of approach, i.e. it can enable new astrophysical imaging systems, exo-planet search, large apertures allow for unprecedented high resolution to discern continents and important features of other planets, hyperspectral imaging, adaptive systems, spectroscopy imaging through limb, and stable optical systems from Lagrange-points. Furthermore, future micro-miniaturization might hold promise of a further extension of our dust aperture concept to other more exciting smart dust concepts with other associated capabilities. Our objective in Phase II was to experimentally and numerically investigate how to optically manipulate and maintain the shape of an orbiting cloud of dust-like matter so that it can function as an adaptable ultra-lightweight surface. Our solution is based on the aperture being an engineered granular medium, instead of a conventional monolithic aperture. This allows building of apertures at a reduced cost, enables extremely fault-tolerant apertures that cannot otherwise be made, and directly enables classes of missions for exoplanet detection based on Fourier spectroscopy with tight angular resolution and innovative radar systems for remote sensing. In this task, we have examined the advanced feasibility of a crosscutting concept that contributes new technological approaches for space imaging systems, autonomous systems, and space applications of optical manipulation. The proposed investigation has matured the concept that we started in Phase I to TRL 3, identifying technology gaps and candidate system architectures for the space-borne cloud as an aperture.

Quadrelli, Marco B.↗

Thermodynamic constraints on the textural evolution of eucrite, EET 90020

Basaltic eucrites, which are possibly parts of the Vestan crust, formed as either lava flows or intrusions, and can offer insights into early crust formation. However most eucrites have experienced thermal metamorphism, which exacerbates the challenges of understanding these samples. A variety of petrogenetic models such as, partial melting of a primitive source, fractional crystallization of magmas emplaced in a primitive crust, and/or partial melting of a eucritic source coupled with melt mixing and assimilation have been proposed in order to explain observed petrologic and chemical characteristics of eucrites. EET 90020 is an unbrecciated eucrite that has experienced significant thermal metamorphism, with temperatures of metamorphic equilibration calculated to be ~840-1040°C. Its petrologic history remains contentious, in part due to differences in trace element analyses [10,17, this work], which has led to multiple metamorphic interpretations [8,10-11]. Here, we combined petrologic observations, chemical analyses, and thermodynamic modeling, to interpret micro-domain textures identified in EET 90020 and better constrain its petrologic history. Ultimately, the development of such textures is a direct result of the geologic processes operating on a young Vesta or similar asteroid. Sample description: We identified three textural domains in EET 90020 (Figure 1); (I) A coarse grain domain with granoblastic plagioclase and pyroxene, (II) a medium grain domain with curved grain boundaries between plagioclase and pyroxene, and (III) a fine grain domain dominated by tridymite that fills in interstitial space between spherical plagioclase. Major element chemistry in phases is consistent across domains. Pyroxene have distinctive high Ca lamellae (Wo40.92En28.1Fs31.0) forming from the low-Ca pigeonite host (Wo3.5En33.7Fs62.8). There are small amounts of fayalitic olivine along pyroxene/oxide grain boundaries, where pyroxenes have reacted with ilmenite/chromite clasts. Plagioclase is anorthitic (Avg ~An88), with little variation (An86-92.5). Trace element bulk rock analyses were collected via ICP-MS and individual mineral analyses with LA-ICP-MS (Figure 2). The bulk sample has an observable enrichment in light rare earth elements, with a notable depletion in Eu. Plagioclase is enriched in LREEs, depleted in HREEs, and has a positive Eu anomaly while pyroxene is enriched in HREEs with a negative Eu anomaly. Variations in trace element analyses is likely influenced by the presence of phosphates because are highly enriched in REEs and have a dramatic effect on the bulk domain compositions. Thermodynamic modeling: The software package, Perple_X, was used to calculate mineral phase equilibria over a range of conditions using a Gibbs free energy minimization approach [12]. Models used all major/minor elements except P2O5. Thermodynamic properties from [13] were used to constrain endmember phase stabilities. Activity models were used to describe mixing in phases with solid solution. Isochemical P-T phase diagrams were constructed for the bulk thin section, and the coarse, medium and fine grain domain compositions. Domain compositions were determined using microprobe analyses of phases identified in each domain and observed modal mineral abundancies. Thermodynamically stable pyroxene compositions were extracted from model results and compared to pyroxene compositions collected via EMPA, allowing us to calculate temperatures for metamorphic equilibrium. Results: Results that use the coarse domain composition (Fig. 3a) demonstrate overlap at T ~ 1020°C indicating high T equilibration. There was no overlap for the medium and fine grain domains, or the bulk composition (e.g., Fig. 3b) indicating that these are not equilibrium assemblages. These results were replicated using data from [8,20]. Discussion: The disequilibrium results from the bulk rock, fine grain and medium grain models imply that EET 90020 was modified during and/or after peak metamorphism (open system behavior). However, this is in contrast to the coarse domain where it appears as if equilibrium was maintained. We suggest that this conflict is explained by highly localized equilibrium occurring at millimeter length-scales, which has been observed in terrestrial metamorphism where aqueous fluid infiltrate [14] or melt loss occurs [15]. It is unlikely that aqueous alteration was significant in modifying the bulk composition of EET 90020, because it lacks hydrated minerals. However, the presence of melt is supported by the presence of an abundance of curved grain boundaries and spherical grains in the medium and fine grain domains This contrasts the coarse domain, where grain boundaries are angular. Given the evidence for disequilibrium in the medium and fine grain domains, it would be inappropriate to draw additional conclusions about textural evolution using thermodynamic models of those domains. However, modeling results of the coarse grain domain, where equilibrium was maintained, can provide useful insights into the geologic evolution of EET 90020. We approximate maximum metamorphic temperatures, using the Ca component in pyroxene, at ~1020°C (Fig. 4), which is consistent with previous two-pyroxene thermometry [11]. At this temperature, up to 10 vol % melt can be produced in the coarse grain domain, which is at the boundary of minimum melt needed in order to segregate and form a melt network [16]. Tridymite and plagioclase would be the first minerals to melt out during heating starting ~990°C. This is consistent with the observed melt textures formed by tridymite and plagioclase in the fine grain domain. We suggest that a partial melting model best explains the textural development of EET 90020. Upon heating, melt generated was either trapped, resulting in no net change in the localized rock composition, or migrated, resulting in disequilibrium between pyroxene and the surrounding matrix. A positive Eu anomaly in plagioclase indicates that all of the plagioclase was melted previously. This is consistent with previous studies that have suggested that EET 90020 represents a residual eucrite that experienced partial melting and subsequent melt loss [8]. We speculate that partial melting could have occurred when EET 90020 was heated in the asteroid’s lower crust or adjacent to an intrusion [7]. Future work will study other, texturally heterogeneous samples to see if EET 90020 presents a unique circumstance or whether crustal partial melting was ubiquitous on the eucrite asteroid.

Eucrites↗

Analysis of Launch Vehicle Liftoff Debris: Historical Perspective from Space Shuttle and Application to Artemis I

Human exploration-class launch vehicles are inherently prone to debris due to the extreme environments generated during pre-launch operations, liftoff, and flight. The use of cryogenic propellants often requires thermal protection system (TPS) coatings, typically foam, to maintain the propellant conditions in the tank and prevent an accumulation ice on the external surface of the vehicle. Some ice growth is to be expected at umbilical interfaces, vents, flanges, or brackets where it is difficult to apply TPS. This ice may come loose at any time due to wind on the launch pad, structural vibration and acoustics after rocket ignition, or aerodynamic forces during flight. This phenomena is especially apparent on vehicles with no TPS, such as the Saturn V rockets used in the Apollo Program, see Figure 1. During propellant tanking, the thermal contraction of the underlying substrate may generate cracks in the TPS (Figure 1). Chunks of TPS can release due to the expansion of ingested gas from cryopumping or from aerodynamic forces if the crack creates an offset surface. Most foams will also have a certain amount of “popcorning” where small pieces of foam will pop off during flight because of the differential between the static surface pressure and the pressure of the gas trapped in the foam cell structure. There are a number of other coating or closeout materials that may be shed from the vehicle and become debris. During pre-launch operations and liftoff, the vehicle may also be exposed to debris originating from the launch pad or ground support equipment. This debris is separate from foreign object debris, or FOD, which is not intended to be present and is strictly controlled through operations and maintenance procedures. In this case, debris is generated from hardware and materials that are necessary for launch and are subject to the intense vibration, acoustics, and direct plume impingement of the launch environment. Examples include ice from umbilicals, tape and tie wraps that protect cables, and rust or corrosion from the launch platform. While NASA has historically been aware of debris as a potential issue that could cause a failure resulting in loss of mission, loss of vehicle, or loss of crew, the likelihood and severity of that risk was not always well understood or given sufficient weight in program and flight decisions. After the Space Shuttle Columbia accident (STS-107), the investigation found that foam TPS debris shed from the external tank was the proximate cause of the damage to the orbiter wing. Six previous observations of debris released from the foam ramp that covered the bipod connecting the forward end of the orbiter to the external tank resulted in minor changes or were determined to be accepted flight risks. Two occurrences of bipod ramp foam loss were not identified until the STS-107 investigation. Despite the damage inflicted by these debris strikes, the Shuttle Program Requirements Control Board deemed the vehicle safe to fly. During the Return to Flight effort following the Columbia disaster, NASA Engineering developed a process for the assessment of debris transport, impact, and damage tolerance to support independent assessments of risk by NASA Safety and Mission Assurance (S&MA). Under this system, each element (vehicle or ground system) defines a catalog of all expected debris based on launch history, component testing, or analysis. Debris transport analysis (DTA) is conducted using the debris catalog characteristics and potential flow transport mechanisms (e.g., vehicle aerodynamics, gravity, wind, plume-driven). The predicted debris impact locations and velocities are provided to the hardware owners, who use available test data and analysis to determine whether each component can withstand the impacts. In cases where the element hardware may be severely damaged or fail, the options are to mitigate the debris source through some change in design or operation, or to work with S&MA to try to characterize the probability of the impact and damage for program risk acceptance. Because of the differences in debris characteristics and transport, the DTA has been divided between the Liftoff and Ascent regimes. The development and application of Liftoff DTA methodology from the Shuttle Program to the current Artemis Program is the subject of this paper. Liftoff DTA covers the time from the start of pre-launch operations at the launch pad, up until the vehicle clears the launch tower and there is no longer any interaction with ground systems. Debris transport during this period is broadly classified as either gravity, wind, and plume-entrained (GWPE) or plume driven (PD). GWPE debris is generally lower speed, travelling in a forward-to-aft direction. PD transport includes flow features from the rocket ignition transient, as well as plume impingement and recirculation that occur as the vehicle lifts off the launch platform. In these cases, the debris typically moves in an aft-to-forward direction at higher speeds. The applicable transport mechanisms must be considered for each piece of debris depending on the material, and release location and time. For example, rust or metallic debris from the tower could fall (GWPE) and impact the vehicle before landing on the launch platform deck where it could be also be transported by plume impingement (PD). However, falling ice (GWPE) from an umbilical is unlikely to survive impact with the vehicle or launch platform and be available for PD transport. Modeling of debris transport is accomplished using a set of DTA tools which simulate debris trajectories subject to a reference frame acceleration (i.e., gravity) and aerodynamic drag. Where the trajectory encounters a solid surface, the debris is allowed to rebound with a specified coefficient of restitution. The drag is calculated by interpolating the fluid state at each point in the debris trajectory from high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of the launch vehicle and pad. The CFD data may either be static (steady state or time averaged), typically for GWPE transport, or dynamic (time-accurate) for PD flow features like the ignition transient. Examples of the CFD flow field solutions for the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and launch pad are shown in Figure 2. Typical SLS debris trajectory predictions from DTA are illustrated in Figure 3. The final version of this paper will include a more detailed examination of the Liftoff DTA process developed during the Shuttle Program, and how it has been augmented and applied to the SLS rocket under the Artemis Program. Comparisons with debris observations from the Artemis I launch will demonstrate validation of the tools and methodology.

Debris↗