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NASA NTRS2014

Connecting Returned Apollo Soils and Remote Sensing: Application to the Diviner Lunar Radiometer

The Diviner Lunar Radiometer, onboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, has produced the first global, high resolution, thermal infrared observations of an airless body. The Moon, which is the most accessible member of this most abundant class of solar system objects, is also the only body for which we have extraterrestrial samples with known spatial context, returned Apollo samples. Here we present the results of a comprehensive study to reproduce an accurate simulated lunar environment, evaluate the most appropriate sample and measurement conditions, collect thermal infrared spectra of a representative suite of Apollo soils, and correlate them with Diviner observations of the lunar surface. It has been established previously that thermal infrared spectra measured in simulated lunar environment (SLE) are significantly altered from spectra measured under terrestrial or martian conditions. The data presented here were collected at the University of Oxford Simulated Lunar Environment Chamber (SLEC). In SLEC, we simulate the lunar environment by: (1) pumping the chamber to vacuum pressures (less than 10‐4 mbar) sufficient to simulate lunar heat transport processes within the sample, (2) cooling the chamber with liquid nitrogen to simulate radiation to the cold space environment, and (3) heating the samples with heaters and lamp to set‐up thermal gradients similar to those experienced in the upper hundreds of microns of the lunar surface. We then conducted a comprehensive suite of experiments using different sample preparation and heating conditions on Apollo soils 15071 (maria) and 67701 (highland) and compared the results to Diviner noontime data to select the optimal experimental conditions. This study includes thermal infrared SLE measurements of 10084 (A11 - LM), 12001 (A12 - LM), 14259 (A14 - LM), 15071 (A15 - S1), 15601 (A15 - S9a), 61141 (A16 - S1), 66031 (A16 - S6), 67701 (A16 - S11), and 70181 (A17 - LM). The Diviner dataset includes all six Apollo sites at approximately 200 m spatial resolution We find that analyses of Diviner observations of individual sampling stations and SLE measurements returned Apollo soils show good agreement, while comparisons to thermal infrared reflectance under ambient conditions do not agree well, which underscores the need for SLE measurements and validates the Diviner compositional measurement technique.

Greenhagen, B. T.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A spaceflight study of synaptic plasticity in adult rat vestibular maculas

Behavioral signs of vestibular perturbation in altered gravity have not been well correlated with structural modifications in neurovestibular centers. This ultrastructural research investigated synaptic plasticity in hair cells of adult rat utricular maculas exposed to microgravity for nine days on a space shuttle. The hypothesis was that synaptic plasticity would be more evident in type II hair cells because they are part of a distributed modifying macular circuitry. All rats were shared with other investigators and were subjected to treatments unrelated to this experiment. Maculas were obtained from flight and control rats after shuttle return (R + 0) and nine days post-flight (R + 9). R + 9 rats had chromodacryorrhea, a sign of acute stress. Tissues were prepared for ultrastructural study by conventional methods. Ribbon synapses were counted in fifty serial sections from medial utricular macular regions of three rats of each flight and control group. Counts in fifty additional consecutive sections from one sample in each group established method reliability. All synapses were photographed and located to specific cells on mosaics of entire sections. Pooled data were analyzed statistically. Flown rats showed abnormal posture and movement at R + 0. They had statistically significant increases in total ribbon synapses and in sphere-like ribbons in both kinds of hair cells; in type II cells, pairs of synapses nearly doubled and clusters of 3 to 6 synapses increased twelve-fold. At R + 9, behavioral signs were normal. However, synapse counts remained high in both kinds of hair cells of flight maculas and were elevated in control type II cells. Only counts in type I cells showed statistically significant differences at R + 9. High synaptic counts at R + 9 may have resulted from stress due to experimental treatments. The results nevertheless demonstrate that adult maculas retain the potential for synaptic plasticity. Type II cells exhibited more synaptic plasticity, but space flight induced synaptic plasticity in type I cells.

Weightlessness↗
NASA NTRS2014

The OSIRIS-Rex Asteroid Sample Return: Mission Operations Design

The OSIRIS-REx mission employs a methodical, phased approach to ensure success in meeting the missions science requirements. OSIRIS-REx launches in September 2016, with a backup launch period occurring one year later. Sampling occurs in 2019. The departure burn from Bennu occurs in March 2021. On September 24, 2023, the SRC lands at the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR). Stardust heritage procedures are followed to transport the SRC to Johnson Space Center, where the samples are removed and delivered to the OSIRIS-REx curation facility. After a six-month preliminary examination period the mission will produce a catalog of the returned sample, allowing the worldwide community to request samples for detailed analysis.Traveling and returning a sample from an Asteroid that has not been explored before requires unique operations consideration. The Design Reference Mission (DRM) ties together space craft, instrument and operations scenarios. The project implemented lessons learned from other small body missions: APLNEAR, JPLDAWN and ESARosetta. The key lesson learned was expected the unexpected and implement planning tools early in the lifecycle. In preparation to PDR, the project changed the asteroid arrival date, to arrive one year earlier and provided additional time margin. STK is used for Mission Design and STKScheduler for instrument coverage analysis.

0↗
NASA NTRS2014

Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office (KT) Overview

The Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office has the unique responsibility to curate NASA's extraterrestrial samples - from past and forthcoming missions - into the indefinite future. Currently, curation includes documentation, preservation, physical security, preparation, and distribution of samples from the Moon, asteroids, comets, the solar wind, and the planet Mars. Each of these sample sets has a unique history and comes from a unique environment. The curation laboratories and procedures developed over 40 years have proven both necessary and sufficient to serve the evolving needs of a worldwide research community. A new generation of sample return missions to destinations across the solar system is being planned and proposed. The curators are developing the tools and techniques to meet the challenges of these new samples. Extraterrestrial samples pose unique curation requirements. These samples were formed and exist under conditions strikingly different from those on the Earth's surface. Terrestrial contamination would destroy much of the scientific significance of extraterrestrial materials. To preserve the research value of these precious samples, contamination must be minimized, understood, and documented. In addition, the samples must be preserved - as far as possible - from physical and chemical alteration. The elaborate curation facilities at JSC were designed and constructed, and have been operated for many years, to keep sample contamination and alteration to a minimum. Currently, JSC curates seven collections of extraterrestrial samples: (a)) Lunar rocks and soils collected by the Apollo astronauts, (b) Meteorites collected on dedicated expeditions to Antarctica, (c) Cosmic dust collected by high-altitude NASA aircraft,t (d) Solar wind atoms collected by the Genesis spacecraft, (e) Comet particles collected by the Stardust spacecraft, (f) Interstellar dust particles collected by the Stardust spacecraft, and (g) Asteroid soil particles collected by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Hayabusa spacecraft Each of these sample sets has a unique history and comes from a unique environment. We have developed specialized laboratories and practices over many years to preserve and protect the samples, not only for current research but for studies that may be carried out in the indefinite future.

Allen, Carlton↗
NASA NTRS2011

Inhalation Toxicity of Ground Lunar Dust Prepared from Apollo-14 Soil

Within the decade one or more space-faring nations intend to return humans to the moon for more in depth exploration of the lunar surface and subsurface than was conducted during the Apollo days. The lunar surface is blanketed with fine dust, much of it in the respirable size range (<10 micron). Eventually, there is likely to be a habitable base and rovers available to reach distant targets for sample acquisition. Despite designs that could minimize the entry of dust into habitats and rovers, it is reasonable to expect lunar dust to pollute both as operations progress. Apollo astronauts were exposed briefly to dust at nuisance levels, but stays of up to 6 months on the lunar surface are envisioned. Will repeated episodic exposures to lunar dust present a health hazard to those engaged in lunar exploration? Using rats exposed to lunar dust by nose-only inhalation, we set out to investigate that question.

James, John T.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Preliminary Examination Process of Apollo Core 73002 - Insights and Lessons Learned From ANGSA for Future Sample Return Missions

Apollo Sample 73002 is part of a 2-foot long “drive tube” (73001/73002) of regolith that was collected from a landslide deposit near Lara Crater at the Apollo 17 site, Station 3. The double drive tube is believed to have penetrated a lunar landslide deposit that was transported from the slope of the South Massif into the TLV [1]. As part of the ANGSA (Apollo Next Generation Sample Analyses) initiative, preparing preliminary examination (PE) catalog of 73002 is a crucial first step for the early identification of material types such as rock fragments, and potential stratigraphy within the core. PE of Apollo core 73002 is distinct from science activities with the main goal to produces a sample catalog with a level of detail about sample characterization that is sufficient for the ANGSA PIs (and later on the lunar sample community) to select and request the samples to conduct their individual, scientific studies. Ultimately, the PE catalog of 73002 will help to establish a better understanding of the stratigraphy of the land slide deposit; the processes of the landslide including the trigger(s) and possibly number of landslide events, as well as the role of volatiles [1] and will aid in the careful preservation of the material for future studies [2].

Apollo↗
NASA NTRS1989

Rationale for Mars Rover/Sampler Return mission

A Mars Rover/Sample Return (MRSR) mission is currently being studied for the late 1990's. The objectives of the mission are to better understand the origin and evolution of Mars, to search for evidence of former life, and to improve the knowledge of the Martian environment in preparation for subsequent human exploration. Having formed in a different part of the Solar System from Earth, Mars will provide clues that will better enable the discrimination between conflicting theories of Solar System formations. Mars is also a natural laboratory on which a wide range of geologic and meteorological processes have operated under conditions very different from those on Earth. Samples are needed so that the full range of analytical techniques available here on Earth can be applied to the study of these issues. The rover provides the mobility needed to access different materials, and can be equipped with an analytical capability so that the planet can be sampled intelligently. The rover will also provide the means of exploring the planet on a human scale and performing a wide range of in situ measurements at different locations. Different mission scenarios are currently being studied with the goal of achieveing sample return before the end of the century.

Carr, Michael H.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Clean and Cold Sample Curation

Curation of Mars samples includes both samples that are returned to Earth, and samples that are collected, examined, and archived on Mars. Both kinds of curation operations will require careful planning to ensure that the samples are not contaminated by the instruments that are used to collect and contain them. In both cases, sample examination and subdivision must take place in an environment that is organically, inorganically, and biologically clean. Some samples will need to be prepared for analysis under ultra-clean or cryogenic conditions. Inorganic and biological cleanliness are achievable separately by cleanroom and biosafety lab techniques. Organic cleanliness to the <50 ng/sq cm level requires material control and sorbent removal - techniques being applied in our Class 10 cleanrooms and sample processing gloveboxes.

Allen, C. C.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Culture-Independent Microbial Air Profiling using a Spaceflight-Compatible Nanopore Sequencing Method

Microbial monitoring of spacecraft air is critical toward assessing the efficacy of microbial controls within the environmental control and life support systems to protect both the crew and the vehicle environment. Additionally, understanding of the atmospheric microbial profiles will be essential toward Mars-forward planetary protection planning. Currently, onboard the International Space Station (ISS), the air is monitored on a quarterly basis using an impaction air sampler. With this method, bacterial and fungal cells and spores are pulled onto plates containing growth medium. Following five days of ambient incubation onboard the ISS, the crew compares the growth to density charts and provides the approximations to the ground. Upon return of the culture plates to the Johnson Space Center’s Microbiology Laboratory, the isolates present are identified for crew health risk assessments. As NASA moves beyond the low-Earth orbit of ISS, sample return will be impractical. As such, a near real-time monitoring capability for the assessment of the spacecraft atmosphere is necessary. Significant strides have been made in recent years to utilize a molecular-based method for microbial profiling of ISS surfaces. The developed method is not dependent on microbial culture, thus removing the associated risk to the crew from high microbial levels, the bias toward detecting only the culturable organisms, and eliminates the need for sample return. The work described here details the evaluation of three different air sampling platforms whose product is amenable to downstream molecular processing and nanopore sequencing. The three samplers were compared in terms of mass and power requirements, ease-of -use, and the resulting data. For the two highest ranking samplers, a basic concept of operations was developed to transfer the sample into the already established preparation and sequencing process. Using these concepts of operations, an in-depth comparison of the molecular data generated was compared to the historical culture-based method. Data from both methods detailed similar microbial profiles, while the molecular method detailed microbial identifications that could not be identified through the culture-based method. The developed method will enable the generation of near real-time microbial profiles of the spacecraft atmosphere.

Brandon J Dunbar↗
NASA NTRS2014

Insights into Regolith Dynamics from the Irradiation Record Preserved in Hayabusa Samples

The rates of space weathering processes are poorly constrained for asteroid surfaces, with recent estimates ranging over 5 orders of magnitude. The return of the first surface samples from a space-weathered asteroid by the Hayabusa mission and their laboratory analysis provides "ground truth" to anchor the timescales for space weathering. We determine the rates of space weathering on Itokawa by measuring solar flare track densities and the widths of solar wind damaged rims on grains. These measurements are made possible through novel focused ion beam (FIB) sample preparation methods.

Keller, Lindsay P.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Finding Interstellar Particle Impacts on Stardust Aluminium Foils: The Safe Handling, Imaging, and Analysis of Samples Containing Femtogram Residues

Impact ionisation detectors on a suite of spacecraft have shown the direction, velocity, flux and mass distribution of smaller ISP entering the Solar System. During the aphelion segments of the Stardust flight, a dedicated collector surface was oriented to intercept ISP of beta = 1, and returned to Earth in January 2006. In this paper we describe the probable appeareance and size of IS particle craters from initial results of experimental impacts and numerical simulation, explain how foils are being prepared and mounted for crater searching by automated acquisition of high magnification electron images (whilst avoiding contamination of the foils) and comment on appropriate analytical techniques for Preliminary Examination (PE).

Kearsley, A. T.↗
NASA NTRS1999

The use of a spaceflight-compatible device to perform WBC surface marker staining and whole-blood mitogenic activation for cytokine detection by flow cytometry

Significant changes have recently been described regarding circulating peripheral immune cells immediately following spaceflight. Existing methods for immunophenotype staining of peripheral blood in terrestrial labs do not meet the constraints for flight on the Space Shuttle. We have recently described the development and use of the Whole Blood Staining Device (WBSD), a simple device for staining flow cytometry specimens during spaceflight. When preparing samples with the WBSD, all liquids are safely contained as the cells are moved through staining, lysis and fixation steps. Here we briefly review the use of the WBSD, and then describe another versatile adaptation, a modification to perform intracellular staining of cytokines for detection by flow cytometry. Alterations in cytokine production have been reported both in ground-based simulated microgravity culture and in astronaut samples returning from spaceflight. Data regarding microgravity effects on cytokine production for specific subpopulations of cells is lacking. Flow cytometric cytokine analysis offers the unique ability to perform simultaneous surface marker analysis and positively identity cytokine producing subsets of cells. The utilization of the WBSD provides the ability to perform rapid and routine mitogenic activation during spaceflight coupled with the ability to perform simultaneous surface marker analysis. The only external requirements for this procedure are an in-flight 37-degree incubator and the capacity for 4-degree storage.

NASA Discipline Regulatory Physiology↗
NASA NTRS2006

Improving the Near-Earth Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris Environment Definition with LADC

The Large Area Debris Collector (LADC) is a 10 m(sup 2) aerogel and acoustic sensor system designed to characterize and collect submillimeter micrometeoroids and orbital debris on the International Space Station (ISS). The project is led by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) with major collaboration by the NASA Orbital Debris Program Office at Johnson Space Center. The U.S. Department of Defense Space Test Program (STP) is responsible for the integration, deployment, and retrieval of the system. The deployment is scheduled for August 2007 with an orbital collection period of one to two years. The combined area time product of LADC will provide a much needed orbital debris population update in the size regime that is important to the safety community - 100 mm and larger. Another key element for LADC is the source identification of the collected samples. Impact features such as track length and track volume can be used to estimate the impact speed and direction of any selected residual embedded in aerogel. Acoustic sensors can provide impact timing and impact location information. The combined dynamical signatures make it possible to reconstruct the orbits of some of the collected samples and lead to their source identification. Compositional analysis on the residuals can also separate debris from meteoroids and provide additional population breakdown for orbital debris (e.g., Al, paint, steel, Al2O3). To maximize the science return and minimize potential contamination from other ISS modules, a careful selection of the location and orientation of LADC on the ISS is needed. Key issues and engineering constraints encountered during mission preparation, and the expected science return based on the mission configuration, are summarized in this paper.

Liou, J.-C.↗
NASA NTRS2020

Recommended Laboratory and Field Studies ahead of Future Mercury Exploration

Data from Mariner 10, MESSENGER, and ground-based telescopic observations have facilitated great advancements towards understanding the geochemistry, geology, internal structure, and space environment (exosphere/magnetosphere) of Mercury. Future exploration efforts by BepiColombo, landed science, and sample return will revolutionize our understanding of this planet. However, to enhance the scientific return of past, present, and future data collection at Mercury, it is imperative that laboratory and field-based studies be conducted over the next decade. This white paper gives examples of laboratory and field studies, including instrument testing, which should take place over the next decade to facilitate the interpretation of data and preparation of future missions to the inner-most planet. By no means are the topics in this paper exhaustive, but rather are meant to demonstrate the immense amount of work that needs to be completed ahead of, or in conjunction with, current and future exploration efforts of Mercury. This work would amplify the benefits from additional data obtained from the planet’s surface to the fullest extent possible, and to aid in decision making of future instrument payloads. We have chosen to focus our inputs here on geochemistry, geology, and space environment related efforts, but we emphasize that extensive research in the areas of geophysics and other geosciences-related disciplines will benefit from additional studies.

Kathleen E. Vander Kaaden↗
NASA NTRS2010

Curating NASA's Extraterrestrial Samples - Past, Present, and Future

Curation of extraterrestrial samples is the critical interface between sample return missions and the international research community. The Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) is responsible for curating NASA's extraterrestrial samples. Under the governing document, NASA Policy Directive (NPD) 7100.10E "Curation of Extraterrestrial Materials," JSC is charged with ". . . curation of all extraterrestrial material under NASA control, including future NASA missions." The Directive goes on to define Curation as including documentation, preservation, preparation, and distribution of samples for research, education, and public outreach.

Allen, Carlton↗
NASA NTRS2011

Curating NASA's Extraterrestrial Samples - Past, Present, and Future

Curation of extraterrestrial samples is the critical interface between sample return missions and the international research community. The Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) is responsible for curating NASA s extraterrestrial samples. Under the governing document, NASA Policy Directive (NPD) 7100.10E "Curation of Extraterrestrial Materials", JSC is charged with ". . . curation of all extraterrestrial material under NASA control, including future NASA missions." The Directive goes on to define Curation as including "documentation, preservation, preparation, and distribution of samples for research, education, and public outreach."

Allen, Carlton↗
NASA NTRS2023

An Engineering Guide to Lunar Geotechnical Properties

The renewed interest in returning human and robotic explorers to the lunar surface has identified a need for a renewed understanding of lunar geotechnical properties related to landing, exploration, excavation, and construction activities on the lunar surface. This paper summarizes measurements conducted during US and Russian/Soviet landed missions as well as experiments performed on returned samples to establish fundamental geotechnical properties such as particle size distribution, particle shape, bulk density, shear strength, cohesion and bearing strength. While many of these properties are well known, how they vary with increased lunar soil depth is less understood, and those properties that vary significantly as a function of depth are explored in additional detail. Selected examples discuss mechanical excavation forces, rocket exhaust erosion forces, and the preparation of launch/landing pad surfaces, with the goal of a better understanding of lunar soil geotechnical properties that apply to large-scale exploration of the lunar surface and dictate the design of future exploration systems.

Lunar Soil↗
NASA NTRS2008

Pattern-Recognition System for Approaching a Known Target

A closed-loop pattern-recognition system is designed to provide guidance for maneuvering a small exploratory robotic vehicle (rover) on Mars to return to a landed spacecraft to deliver soil and rock samples that the spacecraft would subsequently bring back to Earth. The system could be adapted to terrestrial use in guiding mobile robots to approach known structures that humans could not approach safely, for such purposes as reconnaissance in military or law-enforcement applications, terrestrial scientific exploration, and removal of explosive or other hazardous items. The system has been demonstrated in experiments in which the Field Integrated Design and Operations (FIDO) rover (a prototype Mars rover equipped with a video camera for guidance) is made to return to a mockup of Mars-lander spacecraft. The FIDO rover camera autonomously acquires an image of the lander from a distance of 125 m in an outdoor environment. Then under guidance by an algorithm that performs fusion of multiple line and texture features in digitized images acquired by the camera, the rover traverses the intervening terrain, using features derived from images of the lander truss structure. Then by use of precise pattern matching for determining the position and orientation of the rover relative to the lander, the rover aligns itself with the bottom of ramps extending from the lander, in preparation for climbing the ramps to deliver samples to the lander. The most innovative aspect of the system is a set of pattern-recognition algorithms that govern a three-phase visual-guidance sequence for approaching the lander. During the first phase, a multifeature fusion algorithm integrates the outputs of a horizontal-line-detection algorithm and a wavelet-transform-based visual-area-of-interest algorithm for detecting the lander from a significant distance. The horizontal-line-detection algorithm is used to determine candidate lander locations based on detection of a horizontal deck that is part of the lander.

Huntsberger, Terrance↗