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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 181 records · Page 10
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Sensitivity analysis of in-pile critical heat flux experiments in TREAT for characterization of RIA power-transient effects

A reactivity-initiated accident (RIA) is one type of postulated design basis accident (DBA) that can cause a departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) event in pressurized-water reactors (PWRs). A DNB occurrence and its consequences depend on the thermophysical properties of the fuel components and coolant, characteristics of the transient energy insertion into the fuel rod, and the onset of the critical heat flux (CHF) phenomenon. To leverage the restart of the Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility, an effort is currently underway to better understand the cladding-to-coolant heat transfer mechanisms and the CHF phenomenon under fast-transient irradiation conditions. This paper characterizes the impact of power transients on the thermal-hydraulic behavior of a TREAT Facility reactor heater rodlet CHF experiment to provide the priority of parameters that need to be investigated for an improved CHF model. Sobol sensitivity analysis methods and the Reactor Excursion and Leak Analysis Program (RELAP5-3D) code were used to identify key input parameters on the uncertainty in the prediction of peak outer- and inner-surface temperatures of the heater tube, as well as the time of the DNB event. A series of sensitivity analyses revealed the total energy deposition on the tube and the transient effects of power pulse had large impacts on the maximum temperatures. The CHF multiplier had the largest impact on the time occurrence of CHF. The overall results show the energy deposition rate in the tube is the most influencing factor to the manifestation of CHF and the resulting thermal-hydraulic behaviors of the tube. The multiplier for the CHF, which is interpreted as the predicted CHF value, has the largest Sobol indices for the time of the CHF in all cases, since it directly determines the occurrence of CHF. It is inferred that the uncertainties in the thermal-hydraulic behaviors of fuels increase with respect to the key parameters as the power pulse becomes broader, and an accurate estimation of the energy deposition rate is required to reduce the uncertainty in the evaluation of the integrity of fuel if the CHF is expected to occur near the peak power. Therefore, the outputs are expected to provide rigorous interpretation of ongoing in-pile CHF experiments in the TREAT Facility reactor regarding thermal-hydraulic behavior of the fuel system aiming for a new transient in-pile CHF model.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Review of SiC material development for nuclear fusion applications: Cross-cutting research and emerging opportunities

The SiC-based materials, particularly SiC-fiber-reinforced SiC matrix (SiC/SiC) composites, show strong potential for structural and functional applications in future fusion power plants because they can operate at high temperatures with a range of coolants and breeders, thereby enabling higher energy conversion efficiency. Here, this paper presents recent advancements in the development of SiC-based materials, focusing on processing techniques and material performance and resistance under fusion-relevant environments. The processing activities have emphasized near-net-shape fabrication and the joining of SiC subcomponents, with processing methods and material compositions informed by previous irradiation experiments on various grades of SiC. Research on irradiation effects has remained focused on degradation mechanisms and the microstructural optimization of SiC/SiC composites irradiated to high neutron damage levels. Analysis of irradiation defects in SiC has advanced via the application of cutting-edge characterization methods, among which Raman spectroscopy is becoming a common tool to assess atomic-scale chemical disorder. Fusion–fission crosscutting irradiation research has explored combined effects in SiC/SiC composites with application-relevant geometries, including bowing of SiC/SiC composite channels under neutron flux gradients, stress evolution in SiC/SiC composite tubes under through-thickness temperature gradients, and irradiation-enhanced corrosion in SiC. Finally, research opportunities for component testing and assessment under fusion-relevant conditions, in support of emerging concepts from the private fusion sector, are discussed.

Advanced manufacturing↗
DOE OSTI2025

Activation, Dehydrogenation, and Carbon–Carbon Coupling of Methane by Iridium Cations Studied by Infrared Multiple Photon Dissociation Spectroscopy and Density Functional Theory

Products resulting from the sequential activation of one, two, three, and four methane molecules by atomic iridium cations were characterized by gas-phase infrared multiple photon dissociation spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Iridium cations were generated using a laser ablation source and reacted with methane in a linear radiofrequency ion trap before mass analysis and spectroscopic interrogation in a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer coupled to the free-electron laser for intracavity experiments (FELICE) beamline. Product ions were irradiated using infrared light over the 250–1500 cm –1 range. Comparisons between the experimental and DFT-calculated spectra enabled structural determination of the products formed. The observed products include HIrCH + , Ir(CH 2 ) 2 + , H s Ir(C 3 H 5 ) + , and Ir(CH 3 ) s (C 3 H 5 ) + , where the subscript s denotes a syn orientation of the two ligands. Furthermore, formation of the latter two products provides evidence for efficient C–H bond activation and subsequent C–C coupling on the atomic iridium cation.

Chemical reactions↗
NASA NTRS1973

New radiometric techniques and solar constant measurements.

A series of absolute cavity radiometers, designed to measure solar irradiance, has been developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Analysis indicates the absolute uncertainty of irradiance measurements made by the most recent devices to be less than plus or minus 0.5 mW/sq cm. In a series of experiments the radiometric scale defined by the JPL instruments has been compared with the International Pyrheliometric Scale (IPS). A systematic 2.2% difference has been observed with the IPS producing consistently lower measurements. The solar constant and spectral distribution have been derived from high-altitude balloon flight measurements made by two types of JPL cavity radiometers. Measurements at 25 km in 1968 produced a solar constant value of 137.0 mW/sq cm. From 1969 measurements at 36 km, a value of 136.6 mW/sq cm was derived, with an estimated absolute uncertainty of plus or minus 0.5%. The solar spectrum information from these experiments agrees most closely with the solar spectrum model of Labs and Neckel (1968).

Willson, R. C.↗
NASA NTRS1973

Inorganic chemical investigation by X-ray fluorescence analysis - The Viking Mars Lander

The inorganic chemical investigation experiment added in August 1972 to the Viking Lander scientific package uses an energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer in which four sealed, gas-filled proportional counters detect X-rays emitted from samples of the Martian surface materials irradiated by X-rays from radioisotope sources (Fe-55 and Cd-109). The instrument is inside the Lander body, and samples are to be delivered to it by the Viking Lander Surface Sampler. Instrument design is described along with details of the data processing and analysis procedures. The results of the investigation will characterize the surface materials of Mars as to elemental composition with accuracies ranging from a few tens of parts per million (at the trace-element level) to a few per cent (for major elements) depending on the element in question.

Toulmin, P., III↗
DOE OSTI2020

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) irradiated with 140 MeV protons

Here, hexagonal boron nitride was irradiated with 140 MeV protons to a fluence of ~6 10 20 p/cm 2 at T irr ~200 °C. Isotropic graphite was also irradiated alongside h-BN under similar conditions and fluence to enable direct comparison of the two similar structures. The effects of proton irradiation on dimensional stability and microstructure were studied using precision dilatometry and energy dispersive Xray diffraction techniques revealing by direct comparison to graphite that h-BN can better resist radiation damage from bombardment when irradiated with protons impinging normal to the crystallographic planes or along the crystallographic c-axis. X-ray diffraction experiments also revealed a preferred orientation of the crystallites in bulk samples near the sample surface, an orientation influenced by irradiation. Thermal studies using differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis to 740 °C, augmented by precision dilatometry, provided evidence of subtle phase transitions attributed to residual w-BN in the matrix. Irradiation appears to induce shifting of such transitions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Isotope-Specific Analysis of Neutron-Irradiated Lithium Aluminate Ceramics by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

The effects of neutron irradiation on lithium aluminate targets and the permeation of tritium into surrounding components are primary concerns in the development of materials for use in tritium production. The high specific activity and volatility of the tritium in activated samples greatly increase the challenges of experimental analysis. This paper reports the determination of the chemical forms and quantities of H-3 and Li-6 in irradiated and non-irradiated LiAlO2 by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and demonstrates that measurements can be performed in a non-destructive, safe manner to obtain isotope-selective, quantitative information on highly hazardous materials.

Tritium, solid state nuclear magnetic resonance sp↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Simulation of Radiation-Induced DNA Damage With the Code RITRACKS

INTRODUCTION DNA damage is one of the most physiologically important effects of ionizing radiation. Clustered DNA damage events, like double-strand breaks (DSBs), have the most notable biological consequences. DNA damage types depend on both the track structure of the radiation and the spatial organization of the DNA. High linear energy transfer (LET) charged nuclei, found in galactic cosmic rays (GCR), are known to produce large numbers of complex DNA damage events. The human genome is packaged into chromatin, which can take on locus-dependent and cell type-dependent spatial conformations that correspond to epigenetic states, such as more open, extended structures in transcriptionally active chromatin. These epigenetic differences can affect DNA break patterns in response to ionizing radiation, potentially creating distinct DNA repair and signaling outcomes across the genome in different cells. MATERIAL AND METHODS The code RITRACKS (Relativistic Ion Tracks), which simulates stochastic radiation track structures and radiation chemistry, was used to model damage on isolated and histone-bound DNA by various types of ions and photons. The changes made to the code to perform radiation-induced DNA damage, and simulation results on single nucleosomes are given in our recent paper. In this work, the DNA building capabilities of RITRACKS have been extended to simulate more complex DNA structures build on the coarse-grain simulation framework meso-WLCsim. This code can sample generic chromatin fiber conformation ensembles based on the geometry of nucleosomes and mechanical properties of DNA. Using RITRACKS, we simulated the fragment length distributions (FLD) of irradiated DNA structures built using the chromatin conformations of WLCsim and obtained results representative of those obtained with Radiation-Induced Correlated Cleavage with sequencing (RICC-Seq) experiments [6]. We have also performed Fe ion and photon irradiations of K562, IMR90, BJ and RPE-1 cells at NSRL to experimentally validate results. Sample processing and data analysis are in progress and any available preliminary results will be discussed. DISCUSSION The recent updates in the code RITRACKS allow the calculation of several quantities such as the DNA damage yield and the FLD. This approach can be used to model epigenetic state-specific chromatin structure parameters to leverage the epigenetic state data available for many human cell types to infer relative DNA damage sensitivity among genomic loci.

I Plante↗
DOE OSTI2023

Characterization of D-T Generator Neutron Flux Spectrum for Cyclic Neutron Activation Analysis Experiments

Improving nuclear data for short-lived fission product yields will further our fundamental understanding of fission, which is needed across various scientific fields and applications. One method of attaining the needed product yield data is through cyclic neutron activation, which allows a target to be irradiated in a neutron environment and then transported for counting of the radionuclides produced, typically via g spectroscopy. Recently, such a system has been constructed and commissioned at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Targets are shuttled between the head of a D-T neutron generator and a counting station with a transit time of 2 seconds. As part of the characterization of this system, the neutron flux was studied using two activation targets. The neutron flux from the deuterium-tritium fusion generator was determined to be 9.95(33) x10^8 n/cm2-s with a peak energy of 14.9 MeV and a spread of approximately 4 decades between the epithermal and 14 MeV peak group flux.

cyclic neutron activation, gamma-ray spectroscopy,↗
DOE OSTI2025

Insulation Activation and Contamination in Low-Power Experiments

Among the diverse advanced nuclear reactor concepts being developed are designs that expect to operate at much higher temperatures than conventional light-water reactors, and therefore require alternative materials for components capable of withstanding these extreme temperatures. Insulation is one such component where alternative high-temperature industrial composites are being considered. Low-power experiments can provide an opportunity for advancing our understanding of material behavior under irradiation; however, these experiments are not without occupational hazards. The focus of this paper is the potential for activation of insulating composites when exposed to neutron fluence during reactor experiments, and to discuss the subsequent contamination of the testing area. This paper will also discuss practical measures for preventing the creation and inhalation of activated particulate matter (i.e., dust), such as engineering and administrative controls and personal protective equipment. This paper evaluates the suitability of several insulation materials for use in reactor experiments based on their activation from neutron irradiation. The materials considered are Pyrogel XTE by Aspen Aerogel, Cerablanket and Kaowool by Morgan Advanced Materials, Thermo-12 Gold by Johns Manville, and Maxsil CF6-2000 by McAllister Mills. Although these materials are not yet widely used in the nuclear industry, they are common in other industries due to their thermal insulating properties. These materials produce dust while handling that can pose health and safety hazards, which could be further exacerbated by activation. The analysis presented in this paper utilizes a deterministic method developed to predict the activation source term of the provided insulation materials. The method calculates the atomic density of each element within the composites and simulates their exposure to a specified neutron flux density representative of low power experimental conditions. During the irradiation phase and throughout the extensive cooling period, neutron absorptions and nuclear decays are tracked for relevant isotopes. The residual activity within each composite is then assessed to identify the material with the lowest potential radiological hazard to workers. Dust will be created during installation and removal of insulating materials and may also be generated during the experiment. Contamination of surrounding surfaces due to dispersion is highly likely unless preventative measures are taken. The results of this analysis are used to estimate an internal dose from inhalation of activated dust, which is significantly lower than the allowable whole-body dose. However, the risk of internal exposure may increase if the dust becomes a transport vector for nuclear material. The goals of this paper are to enhance the understanding of the potential activation and contamination hazards from the use of these insulating materials in low-power nuclear experiments and to foster safer work environments through informed decision-making and strategic planning. This work ultimately contributes to a broader understanding of how new non-nuclear materials for advanced reactors impact the radiological safety of co-located workers, helping to ensure the responsible management of radioactive materials during installation and decommissioning activities.

12 - MGMT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE WASTE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Development of the MCNP-ORIGEN activation automation tool

This paper introduces the MCNP-ORIGEN activation automation tool for streamlining the calculation of experiment source terms. This tool couples the Monte-Carlo radiation-transport solver, MCNP to the depletion tool, ORIGEN-S. To showcase its current capabilities, this paper presents an activation analysis exercise, which is conducted with Serpent, and the results are com- pared. The experiment consists in a 90%-enriched uranium sphere surrounded by light water. A non-fissile cylinder is placed in the water, representing an irradiation experiment. We conducted simulations for 2 different cylinder materials: iron and cobalt at two different temperatures: 300 K and 900 K. The exercise consists of an irradiation of 50 days at a constant power of 5 MW, followed by a decay of 50 days. These studies highlight the discrepancies between how the different tools handle nuclear data. Finally, the results underscore multiple areas of possible improvement.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Qualification and Quantification of Porosity at the Top of the Fuel Pins in Metallic Fuels Using Image Processing

Approximately 130,000 metal fuel pins were irradiated in the Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) during its 30 years of operation to develop and characterize existing and prospective fuels. For many of the metal fuel irradiation experiments, neutron radiography imaging was performed to characterize fuel behavior, such as fuel axial expansion. While several fuel expansion results obtained from neutron radiography imaging have been published, the analysis of neutron radiography for the purpose of describing statistical properties of porous matter formed on top of the fuel pins, also referred to as fluff in previous publications, is significantly less represented in the literature with just a single paper so far. This study aims to validate and augment results reported in previous publications using automated image processing. The paper describes the statistical properties of the porous matter in terms of nine parameters derived from radiography images and correlates those parameters with such fuel properties as composition, expansion, temperature, and burnup. The reported results are based on 1097 fuel pins of eight different fuel compositions. For three major fuel types, U-10Zr, U-8Pu-10Zr, and U-19Pu-10Zr, a clear negative correlation is found between the Pu content and five parameters describing the amount of porous matter generated. The parameters describing granularity properties, however, showed either negative correlation or nonlinear dependency from fuel composition. The parameters describing the amount showed a positive correlation with fuel axial expansion, while granularity parameters showed a negative correlation with axial expansion. The dependency on cladding temperature was found to be weak. A positive correlation is demonstrated for volume parameters and fuel burnup. In general, reported results confirm and validate findings published in previous studies using a much larger number of pins and automated processing techniques, which easily lend themselves to reproducibility, thus avoiding subjective bias.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

A dual dynamic shutter system for accelerating ion irradiation sample throughput via lateral gas implantation gradients

Ion irradiation for material performance testing is limited due to its serial nature, which allows for only one value of the implantation (appm) versus dose (dpa) parameter space to be explored for each ion and experiment at a time. While ion irradiation can accelerate the process by up to three orders of magnitude compared to neutron irradiation experiments, the sample throughput for ion irradiation remains relatively low. To address these limitations, a novel capability has been developed at the Michigan Ion Beam Laboratory (MIBL), enabling for the creation of single- and two-dimensional lateral ion implantation gradients using recently installed motorized-controlled ion-beam shutters. This advancement can generate a wide scope of the two-dimensional (H+, He2+) implantation parameter space within a single sample. Integration of this new capability now allows for dual- and triple-ion beam experiments to be performed with full user control over not only the ion implantation depth, but also laterally across the sample by imposing ion implantation concentration gradients, thus providing researchers with a high-throughput means for material testing under various irradiation conditions. Furthermore, recent improvements in MIBL's microbeam ion-beam analysis (IBA) target station now allow for probing these concentration gradients in irradiated alloys with exceptional spatial resolution, down to 10 µm. These two approaches promise to significantly improve ion irradiation capabilities and increase the sample throughput by several orders of magnitude. The application of the shutter technique plus the subsequent microbeam characterization of the imposed implantation gradients are showcased by two proof-of-principle ion-irradiated experiments, one performed on single-crystal Si and the other on the fusion-candidate alloy F82H-IEA. These advancements mark a substantial leap in ion-beam technology, offering researchers a robust, high-throughput method to efficiently investigate candidate alloys with high technological readiness for both advanced fission and fusion reactor applications, in a time- and cost-effective manner.

36 - MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Preliminary Assessment of Alternate Chlorination Process

Recent advancements towards low-temperature chlorination with disulfur dichloride and thionyl chloride of Al-clad used nuclear fuel (UNF) have been summarized for work control technical expertise development at the Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL). This technique aims to provide a more effective method for separating U from cladding or alloying elements. A preliminary assessment determined needs for unit operation developments in regard to reaction kinetics and reagent quality. Furthermore, an analysis of an Uruguay fuel plate (U-Al x fuel meat), with low-enriched uranium (LEU) and located at SRNL, was a potential candidate for future experiments with lightly irradiated (0.08% burnup) fuel to test for chlorination. Future proposed work would involve kinetic studies, reagent quality assessments, and the machining of the fuel plate down to an appropriate bench-scale size and testing the effectiveness of low-temperature chlorination on the fuel plate.

Chlorination↗
NASA NTRS1986

Precompaction irradiation effects: Particles from an early active sun?

Two recent studies have shown that solar flare irradiated grains from Murchison and Kapoeta have excess spallogenic Ne-21 compared to unirradiated grains, indicating large precompaction particle irradiation effects. The quantity of cosmogenic neon in these grains presents serious difficulties for either galactic cosmic ray or normal solar flare sources. In the first study it was suggested that the effect might be the result of exposure to an early active sun. The more recent experiment both confirms the earlier results and provides constraints on the characteristic energy spectrum on the irradiation. The first results were obtained from Murchison olivines and Kapoeta pyroxenes by mass spectrometric analysis of sets of grains selected on the basis of the presence or absence of solar flare particle tracks. In the second work plagioclase feldspar grains from Kapoeta were studied.

Caffee, M. W.↗
DOE OSTI2020

First Examination of Irradiated Fuel with Pulsed Neutrons at LANSCE (Preliminary Results)

We present preliminary results on the characterization of an irradiated U-lOZr-lPd fuel sample that was prepared from the irradiated AFC-3A-R5A sample. U-lOZr metallic fuels are researched as host materials for potential transmutation fuels and the addition of palladium strives to bind lanthanides, thus preventing fuel-cladding chemical interactions (FCCI). These interactions limit the lifetime of metallic fuels and are caused by migration of lanthanide fission products to the periphery of the fuel slug, where they start to interact with the D9 or HT9 steel cladding, ultimately leading to failure of the mechanical integrity of the cladding. Neutrons offer bulk characterization of irradiated materials for which X-ray tomography methods are not suitable due to the immense gamma background emitted from the samples. In particular pulsed neutrons provide information from the ability to resolve the neutron energy using their time-of-flight and thus the potential to utilize neutron absorption resonance to characterize the spatial distribution of isotopes. This, in turn, may allow to characterize the distribution of fission and neutron capture products non-destructively and may ultimately be applied to the bulk of an irradiation capsule prior to destructive post-irradiation examination to identify regions of interest. To allow the characterization of entire irradiation capsules, a cask is under development in the advanced post-irradiation work package at LANL and progress on this development was reported elsewhere. In parallel, an irradiated U-lOZr-lPd sample cut from the AFC-3AR5A irradiation was shipped to LANL and will be fully characterized with an NSUF funded rapid turnaround experiment (RTE) in the 2020 LANSCE run cycle. The sample emits at a dose rate of ~3R/hr on contact and is therefore manageable with remote handling, without requiring a cask. The disk-shaped material is larger than samples prepared for analysis using electron or X-ray methods and is therefore an intermediate step towards characterization of bulk samples at LANSCE. However, since it covers the full diameter of the irradiated fuel slug, some insight on redistribution of elements, spatially resolved information on microstructure, e.g. phase composition and texture, will be possible using the pulsed neutron-based methods developed for fuel characterization at LANSCE. This report describes the development of procedures to handle the sample at LANSCE as well as preliminary data and results from tests conducted in December 2019 on the energy-resolved neutron imaging (ERNI) beam line at flight path 5 and the high pressure-preferred orientation diffractometer (HIPPO) at LANSCE. This effort is a collaboration between LANL, INL, and ORNL. To compare our capabilities with prior work, we present an overview of previously reported bulk characterization of irradiated or spent fuels. The overview addresses neutron diffraction and neutron absorption resonance spectroscopy, both of which have only few reported applications on irradiated or spent nuclear fuel, as well as neutron radiography. This literature review was already described in a previous report but is repeated here to put our current efforts in context of previous work.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
NASA NTRS2001

Guidelines for the Selection of Near-Earth Thermal Environment Parameters for Spacecraft Design

Thermal analysis and design of Earth orbiting systems requires specification of three environmental thermal parameters: the direct solar irradiance, Earth's local albedo, and outgoing longwave radiance (OLR). In the early 1990s data sets from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment were analyzed on behalf of the Space Station Program to provide an accurate description of these parameters as a function of averaging time along the orbital path. This information, documented in SSP 30425 and, in more generic form in NASA/TM-4527, enabled the specification of the proper thermal parameters for systems of various thermal response time constants. However, working with the engineering community and SSP-30425 and TM-4527 products over a number of years revealed difficulties in interpretation and application of this material. For this reason it was decided to develop this guidelines document to help resolve these issues of practical application. In the process, the data were extensively reprocessed and a new computer code, the Simple Thermal Environment Model (STEM) was developed to simplify the process of selecting the parameters for input into extreme hot and cold thermal analyses and design specifications. In the process, greatly improved values for the cold case OLR values for high inclination orbits were derived. Thermal parameters for satellites in low, medium, and high inclination low-Earth orbit and with various system thermal time constraints are recommended for analysis of extreme hot and cold conditions. Practical information as to the interpretation and application of the information and an introduction to the STEM are included. Complete documentation for STEM is found in the user's manual, in preparation.

Anderson, B. J.↗
DOE OSTI2021

H⁰ Stark Stripping and Component Irradiation in Fermilab Booster

In foil stripping of H⁻ some fraction of the emerging neutral H⁰ will be in excited states, which can then strip through the Stark effect in the magnetic field of the downstream orbit bump magnet. The resultant H⁺ will experience a depleted net kick compared to protons emerging from the foil and will track on trajectories different from the nominal circulating beam. This will lead to irradiation of downstream machine components. An analysis of these processes is of particular importance looking forward to the much higher beam power of the Fermilab PIP-II era. This study investigates where these errant protons will be lost, how much power is deposited, and whether this will be a shielding concern.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗