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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2022

Thermally stable hydrocarbon-based anion exchange membrane and ionomers

An anion exchange membrane is composed of a copolymer of 1,1-diphenylethylene and one or more styrene monomers, such as 4-tert-butylstyrene. The copolymer includes a backbone substituted with a plurality of ionic groups coupled to phenyl groups on the backbone via hydrocarbyl tethers between about 1 and about 7 carbons in length. High-temperature conditions enabled by these copolymers enhance conductivity performance, making them particularly suitable for use in anion exchange membranes in fuel cells, electrolyzers employing hydrogen, ion separations, etc. The properties of the membranes can be tuned via the degree of functionalization of the phenyl groups and selection of the functional groups, such as quaternary ammonium groups. Several processes can be used to incorporate the desired ionic functional groups into the polymers, such as chloromethylation, radical bromination, Friedel-Crafts acylation and alkylation, sulfonation followed by amination, or combinations thereof.

Lee, Sangwoo↗

DOE OSTI2024

Thermally stable hydrocarbon-based anion exchange membrane and ionomers

Lee, Sangwoo↗

DOE OSTI2023

A Study on the Synthesis and Proton Transport Behavior of Multilayered ZSM-5 Zeolite Nanosheet Membranes Laminated on Polymer Substrates

Single crystalline ZSM-5 ZNs with thicknesses around 6 nm were obtained by secondary growth of silicalite nanoparticles using diquaternary bis-1,5(tripropyl ammonium) pentamethylene diiodide (dC5) as a structure-directing agent (SDA). The dC5 could be effectively removed from the ZN pores by either high-temperature calcination or UV irradiation in air at room temperature but not by the piranha solution treatment. Ultrathin ZN-laminated membranes (ZNLMs) were fabricated by sandwiching a UV-activated multilayered ZN film between two recast Nafion® layers (ZNLM-Nafion) and by filtration coating from a suspension of thermally activated ZNs on a nonionic porous PVDF (ZNLM-PVDF). The ZNLMs on both supports demonstrated the ability of highly proton-selective ion conduction with low resistances in aqueous electrolyte solutions. The ZNLM-PVDF with PVDF binder was structurally stable, and it achieved a comparably low ASR but much higher proton selectivity compared with a Nafion membrane of same overall thickness. However, detachment between the ZNLM and Nafion layers occurred when the ZNLM-Nafion operated in aqueous electrolyte solutions. Results of this study show the potential for developing ZNLMs as efficient proton-conducting membranes without using expensive ionic polymer matrices. However, the development of polymer-supported ZNLMs is hindered by the current inefficiency in preparing well-dispersed suspensions of open-pore ZNs. Future development of efficient methods for synthesizing open-pore ZNs in dispersed states is key to realizing high-performance ZNLMs on polymers.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Proton Selective Nanoporous Atomically Thin Graphene Membranes for Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

Angstrom-scale proton-selective pores in atomically thin 2D materials present fundamentally new opportunities for advancing proton exchange membranes (PEMs). Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFBs) for grid-scale energy storage require PEMs with high areal proton conductance (>1 S cm −2 ) and minimal vanadium ion (VO 2+ ) crossover. However, state-of-the-art Nafion 212 membranes (N212 ≈50 µm thick), suffer from persistent VO 2+ crossover reducing performance and efficiency. Here, a layered PEM is demonstrated, comprising monolayer CVD graphene with Angstrom-scale proton-selective pores introduced via Ar plasma, integrated with an ultra-thin ≈300 nm polybenzimidazole (PBI) layer and sandwiched between two Nafion 211 (25 µm thick) layers. The layered architecture facilitates scalable membrane fabrication by mitigating defects while processing and facile stacking of graphene layers allows stochastic non-selective defect isolation enabling exceptionally low VO 2+ crossover (selectivity (H + areal conductance / VO 2+ permeability) ≈6709 × 10 6 S min cm −4 ), with proton conductance >8 S cm −2 . Systematic transport experiments supported by resistance-based transport modelling elucidate the role of defect size, defect isolation, and sealing, as well as layering/stacking, to enable orders of magnitude (>671× over N212) improvements in selectivity, along with areal proton conductance >8 S cm −2 . This work highlights the potential of atomic-scale proton-selective defect engineering in 2D materials, in conjunction with facile stacking and layering of materials as strategies for scalable, high-performance advances in PEMs for energy, electrochemical, and separation applications beyond VRFBs.

Chaturvedi, Pavan [Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, TN↗

DOE OSTI2020

Toward Long-Term Accurate and Continuous Monitoring of Nitrate in Wastewater Using Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE)–Solid-State Ion-Selective Electrodes (S-ISEs)

Long-term accurate and continuous monitoring of nitrate (NO 3 – ) concentration in wastewater and groundwater is critical for determining treatment efficiency and tracking contaminant transport. Current nitrate monitoring technologies, including colorimetric, chromatographic, biometric, and electrochemical sensors, are not feasible for continuous monitoring. In this work, we addressed this challenge by modifying NO 3 – solid-state ion-selective electrodes (S-ISEs) with poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE, (C 2 F 4 ) n ). The PTFE-loaded S-ISE membrane polymer matrix reduces water layer formation between the membrane and electrode/solid contact, while paradoxically, the even more hydrophobic PTFE-loaded S-ISE membrane prevents bacterial attachment despite the opposite approach of hydrophilic modifications in other antifouling sensor designs. Specifically, an optimal ratio of 5% PTFE in the S-ISE polymer matrix was determined by a series of characterization tests in real wastewater. Five percent of PTFE alleviated biofouling to the sensor surface by enhancing the negative charge (–4.5 to –45.8 mV) and lowering surface roughness (Ra: 0.56 ± 0.02 nm). It simultaneously mitigated water layer formation between the membrane and electrode by increasing hydrophobicity (contact angle: 104°) and membrane adhesion and thus minimized the reading (mV) drift in the baseline sensitivity (“data drifting”). Long-term accuracy and durability of 5% PTFE-loaded NO 3 – S-ISEs were well demonstrated in real wastewater over 20 days, an improvement over commercial sensor longevity.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1979

Three methods for in situ cross-linking of polyvinyl alcohol films for application as ion-conducting membranes in potassium hydroxide electrolyte

Three methods of in situ cross-linking polyvinyl alcohol films are presented. They are: (1) acetalization with a dialdehyde such as glutaraldehyde, (2) acetalization with aldehyde groups formed by selective oxidative cleaving of the few percent of 1,2 diol units present in polyvinyl alcohol, and (3) cross-linking by hydrogen abstraction by reaction with hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals from irradiated water. For the third method, improvement in film conductivity in KOH solution at the expense of mechanical strength is obtained by the presence of polyacrylic acid in the polyvinyl alcohol films. Resistivities in 45 percent KOH are given for in situ cross-linked films prepared by each of the three methods.

Philipp, W. H.↗

DOE OSTI2021

Polarization Effects in Water-Mediated Selective Cation Transport across a Narrow Transmembrane Channel

We report despite the progress in modeling complex molecular systems of ever-increasing complexity, a quantitatively accurate computational treatment of ion permeation through narrow membrane channels remains challenging. An important factor to reach this goal is induced electronic polarization, which is likely to impact the permeation rate of small ions through narrow molecular pores. In this work, we extended the recently developed polarizable force field based on the classical Drude oscillators to assess the role of induced polarization effects on the energetics of sodium and potassium ion transport across the gramicidin A (gA) ion channel. The inclusion of induced polarization lowers barriers present in 1D potential of mean force (PMF) for cation permeation by ~50% compared to those obtained with the additive force field. Conductance properties calculated with 1D PMFs from Drude simulations are in better agreement with experimental results. Polarization of single-file water molecules and protein atoms forming the narrow pore has a direct impact on the free-energy barriers and cation-specific solid-state NMR chemical shifts. Sensitivity analysis indicates that small changes to water–channel interactions can alter the free energy barrier for ion permeation. These results, illustrating polarization effects present in the complex electrostatic environment of the gA channel, have broad implications for revising proposed mechanisms of ion permeation and selectivity in a variety of ion channels.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Mesoporous Thin Film Architectures: Addressing Material Demands through Molecular Self-Assembly

Mesoporous thin films spark interest across a wide range of disciplines due to their tunable nanostructures, large internal surface areas, and strong compatibility with planar optical, electronic, and microfluidic devices. While attention in the porous materials community has shifted toward macroporous or disordered nanoporous systems, a resurgence in mesoporous thin film research is underway, driven by new molecular self-assembly methods, advanced materials chemistry, and improved characterization techniques. The integration of high-χN block copolymer design, kinetically persistent micelle templating, and postdeposition processing protocols now allows control over structural parameters such as pore size, wall thickness, porosity, and connectivity. These advances have overcome many of the thermodynamic and processing constraints that previously limited widespread adoption. Rather than serving only as high-surface-area supports, mesoporous thin films are engineered as active interfaces where responsive chemistries and nanoscale confinement act in tandem. Embedding switchable ligands, thermoresponsive polymers, redox mediators, or ion-selective groups directly within the pore walls enables real-time control over transport, optical, and electrochemical properties. These capabilities open up new directions in adaptive coatings, gated membranes, and fast-response biosensors. To further expand their functional scope, mesoporous films are integrated into hierarchical and multicomponent architectures. Techniques such as triblock terpolymer templating, crack-directed assembly, and nanoimprint lithography allow for control over spatial organization on the micron and submicron scale and pore system orientation. This enables programmable anisotropy, enhanced molecular diffusion, and wavelength-selective photonic behavior, essential for next-generation sensing, catalysis, and energy applications. Such structural and functional complexity requires equally sophisticated characterization. Multimodal and in situ techniques can track material dynamics under operational conditions. Recent progress includes extended-range ellipsometric porosimetry (EP) for hierarchical architectures, vacuum EP for interface energetics, time-resolved EP for diffusion kinetics, and correlative AFM-SAXS mapping. The introduction of advanced neutron-based spectroscopies, particularly quasielastic neutron scattering (QENS), promises to provide real-time access to ion transport dynamics and segmental motion under nanoscale confinement, offering a path toward deeper mechanistic understanding of structure-performance correlations in mesoporous systems. This Account reflects the technical advances made and the interdisciplinary collaborations that have shaped our collective vision. The particular dimensions of mesopores enable us to subtly tune interactions at the molecular, interfacial, and mesoscopic levels that permit us to harness nanoconfinement. What emerges is a versatile, modular platform capable of chemical gating, energy transduction, and sensing with a level of tunability unmatched by other porous materials. We highlight critical challenges including the need for more robust large-area processing, a deeper understanding of dynamic behavior under cycling, and better integration with device-level architectures. Our strategies support the transition of mesoporous thin films into active high-performance components in next-generation energy, environmental, and biomedical systems.

oxides↗

DOE OSTI2024

Untargeted Spatial Metabolomics and Spatial Proteomics on the Same Tissue Section

An increasing number of spatial multiomic workflows have been recently developed. Some of these approaches have leveraged initial mass spectrometry imaging (MSI)-based spatial metabolomics to inform region of interest (ROI) selection for downstream spatial proteomics. However, these workflows have been limited by varied substrate requirements between modalities or have required analyzing serial sections (i.e., one section per modality). To mitigate these issues, we present a novel multiomic workflow that uses desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)-MSI to identify representative spatial metabolite patterns on-tissue prior to spatial proteomic analyses on the same tissue section. Further, this workflow is demonstrated here with a model mammalian tissue (coronal rat brain section) mounted on a polyethylene naphthalate-membrane slide. Initial DESI-MSI resulted in 160 annotations (SwissLipids) within to the METASPACE platform (≤20% false discovery rate). A segmentation map from the annotated ion images informed downstream ROI selection for spatial proteomics characterization from the same sample. The unspecific substrate requirements and minimal sample disruption inherent to DESI-MSI allowed for an optimized, downstream spatial proteomics assay, resulting in 3888 ± 240 to 4717 ± 48 proteins being confidently directed per ROI (200 µm x 200 µm). Finally, we demonstrate the integration of multiomic information, where we found ceramide localization to be correlated with SMPD3 abundance (ceramide synthesis protein), and we also utilized protein abundance to resolve metabolite isomeric ambiguity. Overall, the integration of DESI-MSI into the multiomic workflow allows for complementary spatial and molecular-level information to be achieved from optimized implementations of each MS assay inherent to the workflow itself.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

3D Printing of Functional Hydrogel Devices for Screenings of Membrane Permeability and Selectivity

Developing a fundamental understanding of the effects of varying ligand chemistries on mass transport rates is key to designing membranes with solute-specific selectivity. While permeation cells offer a robust method to characterize membrane performance, they are limited to assessing a single membrane chemistry or salt solution per test. As a result, investigating the effects of varying ligand chemistries on membrane performance can be a tedious process, involving both the preparation of multiple samples and numerous, time-consuming permeation tests. This study uses digital light processing (DLP) 3D printing to fabricate a millifluidic flow-based permeation device made from a hydrogel active ester network that can be easily functionalized with ion-selective ligands. Without the need for bonding or assembly steps, ligands can be introduced and tested in the permeation device by simply injecting a small volume of a ligand solution. Various salt concentrations and molecular species can be cycled through a single device by switching the solution feeding into the salt reservoir, thereby reducing the number of samples needed for permeability and selectivity screenings. This research sets the groundwork for formulation development and postprocessing methods to 3D-print functional millifluidic devices capable of assessing solute selectivity in membranes and polymer adsorbents for aqueous separations. In this work, comparable salt permeability trends were observed with both 3D-printed devices and traditional assays. Devices were functionalized with an imidazole ligand to investigate salt permeability and selectivity of monovalent and divalent salts. Measurements showed increasing permeability for monovalent salts (NaCl) relative to divalent salts (MgCl 2 , CuCl 2 ) in functionalized membranes, with higher monovalent/divalent selectivity at increasing imidazole grafting densities. Here, the methods and findings described here represent a step toward developing higher-throughput methods with 3D-printed devices for screening the effects of ligand chemistry on mass transport rates in membrane materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS1984

NASA Redox Storage System Development Project

The Redox Storage System Technology Project was jointly supported by the U.S. Department of Energy and NASA. The objectives of the project were to develop the Redox flow battery concept and to probe its technical and economic viability. The iron and chromium redox couples were selected as the reactants. Membranes and electrodes were developed for the original mode of operating at 25 C with the reactants separated by an ion-exchange membrane. Analytical capabilities and system-level operating concepts were developed and verified in a 1-kW, 13-kWh preprototype system. A subsequent change was made in operating mode, going to 65 C and using mixed reactants. New membranes and a new electrode catalyst were developed, resulting in single cell operation as high as 80 mA/sq cm with energy efficiencies greater than 80 percent. Studies indicate a likely system cost of about $75/kWh. Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio) has undertaken further development of the Redox system. An exclusive patent license was obtained from NASA by Sohio. Transfer of Redox technology to Sohio is supported by the NASA Technology Utilization Office.

Hagedorn, N. H.↗

DOE OSTI2024

In-house synthesized poly(ether ether ketone) ionenes. I. ToF-SIMS spectra in the positive ion mode

Static time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was performed for acquiring the high-resolution surface spectra of four types of synthesized imidazolium ionene membranes. These novel membranes have aromatic ether–ketone–ether linkages inspired by poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK). The PEEK-ionenes synthesized for this study have imidazolium cations placed in the polymeric backbone with bistriflimide [Tf 2 N]- counterions. The attention given to synthetically modified PEEK derivatives, such as PEEK-ionenes, is considerable due to their ability to selectively capture CO 2 molecules and other light gases. Therefore, it is important to characterize the surface of these synthesized novel PEEK-ionenes. In this work, characteristic and unique peaks were identified in the positive spectra of each sample. The differences in mass spectra among the samples provide insights for optimizing or fine-tuning the PEEK-ionenes synthesis to achieve a high-performance CO 2 separation membrane with enhanced permeability, selectivity, and mechanical stability. The SIMS spectra and identified characteristic peaks of these synthesized ionenes will serve as a reference in the positive mode, complementing the corresponding spectra reported in the negative ion mode (Paper II).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1982

Functional membranes. Present and future

The present situation and the future development of the functional membrane are discussed. It is expected that functional membranes will play increasingly greater roles in the chemical industry of the coming decade. These membranes are formed from polymer films, liquid membranes or bilayer membranes. The two most important technologies based on the polymeric membrane are reverse osmosis and ion exchange. The liquid membrane is used for separation of ionic species; an extension of the solvent extraction process. By using appropriate ligands and ionophores, highly selective separations are realized. The active transport is made possible if the physical and chemical potentials are applied to the transport process. More advanced functional membranes may be designed on the basis of the synthetic bilayer membrane.

Kunitake, T.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sodium-halogen secondary cell

An intermediate temperature sodium-halogen secondary cell that includes a negative electrode compartment housing a negative, molten sodium-based electrode and a positive electrode compartment housing a current collector disposed in a highly conductive molten positive electrolyte. A sodium halide (NaX) positive electrode is disposed in a molten positive electrolyte comprising one or more AlX3 salts, wherein X may be the same or different halogen selected from Cl, Br, and I, wherein the ratio of NaX to AlX3 is greater than or equal to one. A sodium ion conductive solid electrolyte membrane separates the molten sodium negative electrode from the molten positive electrolyte. The secondary cell operates at a temperature in the range from about 80° C. to 210° C.

Bhavaraju, Sai↗

DOE OSTI2022

Using Membranes with Internal Microchannels to Prevent Drying-out during CO 2 Electrolysis

Scaling up CO 2 electrolysis is a vital aspect in the transition to manufacturing sustainable fuels and chemical compounds, satisfying the demand for chemicals and demand for storing renewable electricity. Depending on the employed catalyst, different products can be produced, such as carbon monoxide and ethylene, by applying a voltage on a CO 2 and H 2 O fed electrolyzer. CO is a desirable product according to techno-economic analysis, because it can be produced selectively using a silver catalyst and is a precursor for hydrocarbons in the Fischer–Tropsch process. In a state-of-the-art CO 2 electrolyzer, two electrodes are directly pressed against an ion-exchange membrane – this is called a zero-gap configuration. Therefore, the membrane is a crucial component for the system, since it has the role of providing a conductive medium between the electrodes. One of the challenges in CO 2 electrolysis is that water is consumed in the reaction. At high current density, this may cause the membrane's surface near the cathode to dry out, lowering efficiency or perhaps stopping the process entirely, since there is no longer a conductive medium. As a result, water management is critical for this process. In this work, we approach the drying-out challenge by studying the novel concept of a membrane with internal microchannels. These channels allow the circulation of water or an electrolyte inside the membrane, which reduces the water diffusion path and affects the membrane’s conductivity. The effects of channel geometry, location, and concentrations of electrolyte inside on water content, conductivity and overall performance are studied in a 2D COMSOL model. In addition, the effect of internal concentration of electrolyte on the membrane’s resistance, on the process performance and the K + cross-over to cathode side were investigated experimentally. Our modeling results prove that the presence of the channels can keep the membrane hydrated. The highest current densities are observed when the channel is closest to the cathode, and with smaller pores. Smaller pores are advantageous due to the trade-off between enhanced membrane conductivity and the lower conductivity of the liquid itself. If water is circulated in a large channel, it increases the membrane’s ionomer conductivity due to hydration but the overall conductivity is decreased since water is not highly conductive. Nonetheless, the results also show that a higher concentration of electrolyte inside the microchannels can significantly increase the total conductivity of the membrane, and therefore the energy efficiency of the process. These effects are most significant at higher current densities. In the experimental results, we’ve observed similar effects in terms of membrane conductivity and current density of the process – the higher the electrolyte concentration the higher the current density. Furthermore, a low concentration decreases the amount of potassium which crosses over to the cathode side, inhibiting salt deposition. We’ve concluded that a small channel, up to 90 µm wide, close to the pore with an electrolyte with a concentration of up to 10 mM could be very beneficial for the water management and energy efficiency of the process. This helps to keep the membrane hydrated at higher current densities, improves the conductivity of the membrane, and it doesn’t have significant impacts on the salt deposition.

Petrov, Kostadin Veselinov↗

DOE OSTI2024

Analyzing the upscaling potential and geospatial siting of calcination-free calcium hydroxide production in the United States

This study evaluates the techno-economic feasibility and the embodied carbon dioxide intensity (eCI) of a novel process for producing nominally pure (>95 mass %) calcium hydroxide without the need for the thermal calcination of limestone. The process relies on the aqueous extraction of calcium from alkaline industrial wastes following which portlandite (Ca(OH) 2 : CH, a.k.a. slaked lime or hydrated lime) is precipitated by application of a waste-heat based thermal swing. This approach takes advantage of the temperature dependent solubility of CH at ambient pressure. We evaluated the feasibility of implementing this process in the U.S. based on the geospatial availability of waste heat and slags as a Ca-source. For the base case, the cost of production of “Low-Temperature Portlandite (LTP)” is 2-to-3 times that of traditional portlandite (~$180/tonne). The main driver of cost is the electricity demand for reverse osmosis (RO) which is used to concentrate Ca-ions in solution, and the costs of membrane replacement. Our sensitivity analysis showed that parity with the cost of production of traditional portlandite is readily achievable by selecting membranes with better durability (i.e., better pH resistance) and flux (i.e., higher permeability) without sacrificing selectivity. Significantly, LTP features an eCI that is between 40%- and - 80 % lower than its traditional counterpart when electricity is sourced from natural gas combustion or wind power, respectively. Finally, our geospatial analysis reveals that there are three areas in the U.S. with the potential for implementation of industrial-scale facilities that could produce at least 50 tonnes of pure Ca(OH) 2 per day, while achieving a production cost of ~$270 per tonne of Ca(OH) 2 , owing to the proximity between slag feedstocks and waste heat sources.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Transport and Co-Transport of Carboxylate Ions and Ethanol in Anion Exchange Membranes

Understanding multi-component transport behavior through hydrated dense membranes is of interest for numerous applications. For the particular case of photoelectrochemical CO 2 reduction cells, it is important to understand the multi-component transport behavior of CO 2 electrochemical reduction products including mobile formate, acetate and ethanol in the ion exchange membranes as one role of the membrane in these devices is to minimize the permeation of these products. Anion exchange membranes (AEM) have been employed in these and other electrochemical devices as they act to facilitate the transport of common electrolytes (i.e., bicarbonates). However, as they act to facilitate the transport of carboxylates as well, thereby reducing the overall performance, the design of new AEMs is necessary to improve device performance through the selective transport of the desired ion(s) or electrolyte(s). Here, we investigate the transport behavior of formate and acetate and their co-transport with ethanol in two types of AEMs: (1) a crosslinked AEM prepared by free-radical copolymerization of a monomer with a quaternary ammonium (QA) group and a crosslinker, and (2) Selemion® AMVN. We observe a decrease in diffusivities to carboxylates in co-diffusion. We attribute this behavior to charge screening by the co-diffusing alcohol, which reduces the electrostatic attraction between QAs and carboxylates.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Synthetic antibodies against BRIL as universal fiducial marks for single-particle cryoEM structure determination of membrane proteins

We propose the concept of universal fiducials based on a set of pre-made semi-synthetic antibodies (sABs) generated by customized phage display selections against the fusion protein BRIL, an engineered variant of apocytochrome b562a. These sABs can bind to BRIL fused either into the loops or termini of different GPCRs, ion channels, receptors and transporters without disrupting their structure. A crystal structure of BRIL in complex with an affinity-matured sAB (BAG2) that bound to all systems tested delineates the footprint of interaction. Negative stain and cryoEM data of several examples of BRIL-membrane protein chimera highlight the effectiveness of the sABs as universal fiducial marks. Taken together with a cryoEM structure of sAB bound human nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, this work demonstrates that these anti-BRIL sABs can greatly enhance the particle properties leading to improved cryoEM outcomes, especially for challenging membrane proteins.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗