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DOE OSTI2024

A Biochar Classification System and Associated Test Methods

In this chapter, a biochar classification system related to its use as soil amendment is proposed. This document builds upon previous work: “Standardized product definition and product testing guidelines for biochar that is used in soil” (IBI, 2015) (aka IBI Biochar Standards) and “Guidelines for biochar production for a sustainable production of biochar: European Biochar Certificate” (EBC, 2012-2022) (aka EBC Biochar Standards). It should be noted that the EBC guidelines constitute the basis for biochar certification through the independent government accredited inspection agency, Bio.Inspecta AG. The present document constrains its scope to materials with properties that satisfy the criteria for biochar as defined by either the IBI Biochar Standards or the EBC Standards (Annex I), as required by the current methodologies developed for accounting carbon credits associated with the biochar use in the voluntary market (e.g., Verra, Puro.Earth). The classification system envisions enabling stakeholders and commercial entities to (i) identify the most suitable biochar to fulfil the requirements for a particular soil and/or land-use, (ii) distinguish the application of biochar for specific niches (e.g., soilless agriculture), and (iii) assess the climate-impact value based on biochar properties, production efficiency, and alternative feedstock uses. It is based on the best current knowledge and will need to be improved as new data and knowledge become available in the scientific literature.

biochar, climate change impacts, soil amendment, c↗

DOE OSTI2021

Call to Action for Global Access to and Harmonization of Quality Information of Individual Earth Science Datasets

Knowledge about the quality of data and metadata is important to support informed decisions on the (re)use of individual datasets and is an essential part of the ecosystem that supports open science. Quality assessments reflect the reliability and usability of data. They need to be consistently curated, fully traceable, and adequately documented, as these are crucial for sound decision- and policy-making efforts that rely on data. Quality assessments also need to be consistently represented and readily integrated across systems and tools to allow for improved sharing of information on quality at the dataset level for individual quality attribute or dimension. Although the need for assessing the quality of data and associated information is well recognized, methodologies for an evaluation framework and presentation of resultant quality information to end users may not have been comprehensively addressed within and across disciplines. Global interdisciplinary domain experts have come together to systematically explore needs, challenges and impacts of consistently curating and representing quality information through the entire lifecycle of a dataset. This paper describes the findings of that effort, argues the importance of sharing dataset quality information, calls for community action to develop practical guidelines, and outlines community recommendations for developing such guidelines. Practical guidelines will allow for global access to and harmonization of quality information at the level of individual Earth science datasets, which in turn will support open science.

96 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND PRESERVATION↗

DOE OSTI2020

Advanced control sequences and FDD technology. Just shiny objects, or ready for scale?

Innovations in commercial building control sequences (ASHRAE guideline 36) and fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) technology have the potential to transform existing building operational efficiency by realizing whole-building level savings on the order of 15% and higher. However, several technical and market barriers related to up-front estimation of achievable savings, verifying implementation, and ensuring persistence are slowing down their adoption as a core offering through diverse owner-funded initiatives and rate-payer funded programs. This paper describes a suite of solutions to overcome these barriers to program delivery of advanced HVAC controls integrated with FDD energy management and information system (EMIS) technology. First, the Guideline 36 conformance test offers an automated method to confirm correct sequence implementation by the manufacturer, before field deployment. A successful test of a controller was conducted using a new manufacturer-independent hardware-in-the-loop testbed demonstrating the viability and scalability of this approach. Second, the Guideline 36 energy savings calculator uses modeling paired with high-level user inputs to estimate building-specific savings potential, target cost effective implementation and minimize uncertainty. Initial results indicate the baseline control sequences significantly impact energy savings, however, as much as 50% savings may be possible for the worst-case baseline scenario. Third, a functional specification provides minimum recommended EMIS-FDD capabilities, and best practices to integrate the technology into organizational practice and ensure that advanced control sequences provide persistent savings.

Pritoni, Marco↗

DOE OSTI2020

Sampling and Analysis Plan for Investigation of Undeclared Nuclear Activities - 20104

The nuclear-centered energy policy in South Korea is moving towards a nuclear-free era. It also facilitates an action or progress on the denuclearization of the Korean peninsula. The Nuclear Safety and Security Commission (NSSC) launched a new R and D project which attempts to verify nuclear activities via analyzing environmental samples. Environmental samples possibly contain significant radiological information relevant to past undeclared activities. In order to precisely verify them, it is essential to provide 1) the concrete information of target facilities, 2) appropriate methodologies and procedures, and 3) well-suited instrumentation and equipment corresponding to sample signatures. It is also important to provide scientific reliability or validity in any process such as sample collection, handling, transportation and laboratory analysis. Therefore, the information of nuclear facilities (fuel fabrication plant, graphite moderated reactor, reprocessing plant) in North Korea are reviewed in order to determine parameters for appropriate sampling methods representing a facility's characteristics. Secondly, a sampling procedure for radioactive elements is being developed based on international and domestic standards such as ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), KS (Korean industrial Standards), and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) manuals. The procedure contains some specific information including sampling process, sampling tools, amount of sample, sample identification, and other related information. Developing the qualified national guidelines is most important since sampling and analyzing results can be used as evidences of nuclear activities. The guideline developed through this work will clearly define various methodologies such as document verification, sampling procedures, collection methods, sample storage criteria, chain of custody, and transportation conditions. The final objective of this work is to establish the infrastructure and regulatory framework for assessment of nuclear activities, and provide a national guideline for sampling and analysis. This will bring confidence in the results and play a critical role in complete denuclearization progress in South Korea. (authors)

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗

DOE OSTI2021

Pathways of China's PM 2.5 air quality 2015–2060 in the context of carbon neutrality

Clean air policies in China have substantially reduced particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) air pollution in recent years, primarily by curbing end-of-pipe emissions. However, reaching the level of the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines may instead depend upon the air quality co-benefits of ambitious climate action. Here, we assess pathways of Chinese PM 2.5 air quality from 2015 to 2060 under a combination of scenarios that link global and Chinese climate mitigation pathways (i.e. global 2°C- and 1.5°C-pathways, National Determined Contributions (NDC) pledges and carbon neutrality goals) to local clean air policies. We find that China can achieve both its near-term climate goals (peak emissions) and PM 2.5 air quality annual standard (35 μg/m3) by 2030 by fulfilling its NDC pledges and continuing air pollution control policies. However, the benefits of end-of-pipe control reductions are mostly exhausted by 2030, and reducing PM 2.5 exposure of the majority of the Chinese population to below 10 μg/m 3 by 2060 will likely require more ambitious climate mitigation efforts such as China's carbon neutrality goals and global 1.5°C-pathways. Our results thus highlight that China's carbon neutrality goals will play a critical role in reducing air pollution exposure to the level of the WHO guidelines and protecting public health.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Microbiome data management in action workshop: Atlanta, GA, USA, June 12–13, 2024

Microbiome research is revolutionizing human and environmental health, but the value and reuse of microbiome data are significantly hampered by the limited development and adoption of data standards. While several ongoing efforts are aimed at improving microbiome data management, significant gaps still remain in terms of defining and promoting adoption of consensus standards for these datasets. The Strengthening the Organization and Reporting of Microbiome Studies (STORMS) guidelines for human microbiome research have been endorsed and successfully utilized by many research organizations, publishers, and funding agencies, and have been recognized as a consensus community standard. No equivalent effort has occurred for environmental, synthetic, and non-human host-associated microbiomes. To address this growing need within the microbiome research community, we convened the Microbiome Data Management in Action Workshop (June 12–13, 2024, in Atlanta, GA, USA), to bring together key decision makers in microbiome science including researchers, publishers, funders, and data repositories. The 50 attendees, representing the diverse and interdisciplinary nature of microbiome research, discussed recent progress and challenges, and brainstormed actionable recommendations and paths forward for coordinated environmental microbiome data management and the modifications necessary for the STORMS guidelines to be applied to environmental, non-human host, and synthetic microbiomes. The outcomes of this workshop will form the basis of a formalized data management roadmap to be implemented across the field. These best practices will drive scientific innovation now and in years to come as these data continue to be used not only in targeted reanalyses but in large-scale models and machine learning efforts.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

ESS-DIVE Reporting Format for Comma-separated Values (CSV) File Structure

The ESS-DIVE reporting format for Comma-separated Values (CSV) file structure is based on a combination of existing guidelines and recommendations including some found within the Earth Science Community with valuable input from the Environmental Systems Science (ESS) Community. The CSV reporting format is designed to promote interoperability and machine-readability of CSV data files while also facilitating the collection of some file-level metadata content. Tabular data in the form of rows and columns should be archived in its simplest form, and we recommend submitting these tabular data following the ESS-DIVE reporting format for generic comma-separated values (CSV) text format files. In general, the CSV file format is more likely accessible by future systems when compared to a proprietary format and CSV files are preferred because this format is easier to exchange between different programs increasing the interoperability of a data file. By defining the reporting format and providing guidelines for how to structure CSV files and some field content within, this can increase the machine-readability of the data file for extracting, compiling, and comparing the data across files and systems.Data package files are in .csv, .png, and .md. Open the .csv with e.g. Microsoft Excel, LibreOffice, or Google Sheets. Open the .md files by downloading and using a text editor (e.g., notepad or TextEdit). Open the .png in e.g. a web browser, photo viewer/editor, or Google Drive.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Terrestrial laser scanning data (Levels 0 and 1) for Pasoh, Malaysia, Sep 2024

This data package contains data from terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) at the Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. The Pasoh Forest Reserve is a facility of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia, and contains evergreen lowland dipterocarp forest. The Next-Generation Ecosystem Experiments Tropics (NGEE-Tropics) study areas at Pasoh were established to study how different species respond to climatic variation and soil water availability. Two study areas were chosen representing different topography and species. The TLS data archived here were collected to provide detailed, three-dimensional information about forest structure. Specifically, data were collected to allow tree-level characterization of woody structure and leaf area for 12 focal trees with FloraPulse and sap flux sensors, facilitating estimation of woody biomass and leaf area to allow upscaling of water content and transpiration data to the tree-level. Scan positions were not selected to provide consistent data for non-focal trees with the study areas. This data package contains the following data: - High-level files document further details of the campaign and data package: 1_CampaignSummary.csv provides details about the campaign and study site, 2_ScanAreasDetail.csv provides details about each separate scan area (groups of scans post-processed into a single point cloud), 3_TerrestrialLidarSensor.csv provides further technical details about the Riegl VZ-400i TLS sensor, TLS_CSV_dd.csv is a CSV Data Dictionary providing information about the fields in CSV files following the ESS-DIVE CSV File Formatting Guidelines Reporting Format, TLS_flmd.csv is a File Level Metadata file providing information about each file in the data package following the ESS-DIVE File Level Metadata Reporting Format, and README.txt is a text file describing the overall project and file structure. - Level 0 data are the raw data (.PROJ folders) as recorded by the Riegl VZ-400i TLS instrument before scan co-registration and post-processing with the Riegl's proprietary RiSCAN PRO software, which requires a license. - Level 1 data contain post-processed, co-registered data from each scan area. The "PointClouds" folder for each scan area contains a .las file with 1 cm resolution point cloud data exported from RiSCAN PRO. These are the main files likely to be of interest to most users and can be further processed with any software capable of manipulating .las files (e.g. Python, R CloudCompare). The "Project Information" folder contains log files from post-processing in RiSCAN PRO that may be of interest to users who want to see detailed records of post-processing, including all PDF reports generated by RiSCAN PRO. The "ScanPositions" folder contains information about the final position of all TLS scans, after post-processing, in multiple formats. The file ScanPositions_*.csv provides final geo-referenced scan positions, and the file SOP_backup_*.csv can be used in RiSCAN PRO to restore the co-registered scan positions if users wish to re-process raw data (Level 0 .PROJ folders) with RiSCAN PRO software (e.g., subsample to a different resolution, exclude a certain scan position, or apply different filters on reflectance or deviation values) without redoing time-consuming co-registration steps.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Terrestrial laser scanning data (Levels 0 and 1) from Urban Biogeochemistry Pilot Project sites, Knoxville, Tennessee, Jul 2024 - Jul 2025

This data package contains data from terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) at five urban park sites in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. All parks include open-grown and/or closed-canopy trees and mixed nearby land use. These study sites were established as part of the Urban Biogeochemistry Pilot Project, which has an overall goal of better understanding how hydrobiogeochemical cycling is altered within the human environment. These five sites represent a gradient of urbanization, and were instrumented to understand hydrological and biogeochemical cycling (e.g., soil moisture, soil physical properties and biogeochemistry, tree transpiration, species type). The TLS data archived here were collected to provide detailed, three-dimensional information about forest structure. Specifically, data were collected to allow tree- and stand-level characterization of woody structure and leaf area. TLS scans were placed to capture the area around trees with sap flow sensors, and as much of a 50 m radius area around the meteorological station as possible given site property limits. Derived products will allow upscaling of water content and transpiration data. This data package contains the following data: - High-level files document further details of the campaign and data package: 1_CampaignSummary.csv provides details about the campaign and study site, 2_ScanAreasDetail.csv provides details about each separate scan area (groups of scans post-processed into a single point cloud), 3_TerrestrialLidarSensor.csv provides further technical details about the Riegl VZ-400i TLS sensor, TLS_CSV_dd.csv is a CSV Data Dictionary providing information about the fields in CSV files following the ESS-DIVE CSV File Formatting Guidelines Reporting Format, TLS_flmd.csv is a File Level Metadata file providing information about each file in the data package following the ESS-DIVE File Level Metadata Reporting Format, and README.txt is a text file describing the overall project and file structure. - Level 0 data are the raw data (.PROJ folders) as recorded by the Riegl VZ-400i TLS instrument before scan co-registration and post-processing with the Riegl's proprietary RiSCAN PRO software, which requires a license. - Level 1 data contain post-processed, co-registered data from each scan area. The "PointClouds" folder for each scan area contains a .las file with 1 cm resolution point cloud data exported from RiSCAN PRO. These are the main files likely to be of interest to most users and can be further processed with any software capable of manipulating .las files (e.g. Python, R CloudCompare). The "Project Information" folder contains log files from post-processing in RiSCAN PRO that may be of interest to users who want to see detailed records of post-processing, including all PDF reports generated by RiSCAN PRO. The "ScanPositions" folder contains information about the final position of all TLS scans, after post-processing, in multiple formats. The file ScanPositions_*.csv provides final geo-referenced scan positions, and the file SOP_backup_*.csv can be used in RiSCAN PRO to restore the co-registered scan positions if users wish to re-process raw data (Level 0 .PROJ folders) with RiSCAN PRO software (e.g., subsample to a different resolution, exclude a certain scan position, or apply different filters on reflectance or deviation values) without redoing time-consuming co-registration steps.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Design for Remanufacturing

The objective of this project was to develop relationships between published scholarship, industry experience, and remanufacturing design rules and identify a clear path for integrating remanufacturing design rules into CAD tools and design practices. To accomplish this, remanufacturing knowledge was compiled, and then the relationships between this knowledge and a prioritized set of product design guidelines was developed. Next, a process to create rules out of guidelines was developed by first defining life extension as a primary function, and remanufacturing as effective tasks to control the failure modes that would restrict the product life. The reliability centered maintenance (RCM) process was used to identify proactive tasks and default actions to mitigate the effects of failure modes. These tasks were developed into expert system rules. The impact of design on remanufacturing was then validated through implementing a prioritized set of design rules for a Heavy Duty Off-Road (HDOR) techno-economic case study. Finally, detailed steps on how to define, develop, and integrate these rules into CAD were created.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2024

Regulations for Bat Protection in Mexico's Wind Farms

Wind energy development has expanded the fastest globally among all renewable sources during the last 20 years. However, wind farms have documented adverse impacts on bats, including mortality from collisions with turbine blades and disruptions to habitat and behavior. As the world's sixth most attractive economy for renewables, with 70 operating wind farms, Mexico and its bats now face escalating threats from the country's burgeoning wind industry. Despite this rapid growth, few studies have analyzed Mexico's regulatory framework to prevent, evaluate, and mitigate wind farm effects on bats. In this study, we reviewed Mexican laws and treaties that facilitate wind farm permitting, construction, operation, and decommissioning, and searched for guidelines that specifically address bat conservation. We found eight international pacts that promote wind power adoption along with three relevant articles in Mexico's Constitution. The General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection proved most pertinent for impact management. Supplementary guidelines from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources offer general strategies for evaluating wind farm impacts on bats, but adherence remains voluntary. Given expanding wind power investments across Mexico, we highlight the need for more stringent national standards that require preventative and corrective measures to protect bat populations. Tighter legislation and enforcement offer pathways toward environmentally sustainable wind energy development in Mexico.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 56)

Consolidated tables showing an extensive listing of the highest independently confirmed efficiencies for solar cells and modules are presented. Guidelines for inclusion of results into these tables are outlined, and new entries since January 2020 are reviewed.

energy conversion efficiency↗

DOE OSTI2020

Solar cell efficiency tables (version 57)

Abstract Consolidated tables showing an extensive listing of the highest independently confirmed efficiencies for solar cells and modules are presented. Guidelines for inclusion of results into these tables are outlined, and new entries since June 2020 are reviewed. In this issue, charts showing efficiency improvements since 1993 are included as well as cell and module area definitions and an updated list of recognized test centres.

Green, Martin↗

DOE OSTI2021

Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 58)

41 EE - Solar Energy Technologies Office (EE-4S)↗

DOE OSTI2024

Updated sustainability status of cadmium telluride thin‐film photovoltaic systems and projections

This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the up-to-date life-cycle sustainability status of cadmium-telluride based photovoltaic (PV) systems. Current production modules (Series 6 and Series 7) are analyzed in terms of their energy performance and environmental footprint and compared with the older series 4 module production and current single-crystalline Silicon (sc-Si) module production. For fixed-tilt systems with Series 6 modules operating under average US irradiation of 1800 kWh/m 2 /year, the global warming potential (GWP) is reduced from 16 g CO 2eq /kWh in Series 4 systems to 10 CO 2 eq /kWh in Series 6 systems. For operation in US-SW irradiation of 2300 kWh/m 2 /year, the GWP is reduced from 11 to 8 CO 2eq /kWh and for 1-axis tracking systems operating in Phoenix, Arizona, with point-of array irradiation of 3051 kWh/m 2 /year the GWP is reduced to 6.5 CO 2eq /kWh. Similar reductions have happened in all environmental indicators. Energy payback times (EPBT) of currently installed systems range from 0.6 years for fixed–tilt ground–mounted installations at average US irradiation at latitude tilt installations to 0.3 years for one-axis trackers at high US-SW irradiation, considering average fossil-fuel dominated electricity grids with fuel to electricity conversion efficiency of 0.3. The resulting energy return on energy investment (EROI) also depends on the conversion efficiency of the electricity grid and on the operation life expectance. For a 30-year operational life and grid conversion efficiency of 0.3, EROI ranges from 50 (at US average irradiation) to 70 for US-SW irradiation. The EROI declines with increased grid conversion efficiency; for CdTe PV operating in south California with grid conversion efficiency of 49%, the EROI is about 50 and is projected to fall to 30 when the state's 2030 target of 80% renewable energy penetration materializes. Material alternatives that show a potential of further reductions in degradation rates and materials for enhanced encapsulation that would enable longer operation lives have also been investigated. A degradation rate of 0.3%/year, which has been verified by accelerated testing, is assumed in 30-year scenarios; this is projected to be reduced to 0.2%/year in the near-term and potentially to 0.1%/year in the longer term. With such low degradation rates and enhanced edge-sealing, modules can last 40- to 50-years. Consequently, all impact indicators will be proportionally reduced while EROI will increase. This detailed LCA was conducted according to ISO standards and IEA PVPS Task 12 guidelines. Furthermore, the study revealed that the choices of system models, methods and temporal system boundaries can significantly impact the results and points out to the need to include assumptions regarding these choices in the “transparency in reporting” requirements listed in the IEA PVPS Task 12 Guidelines.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

The Table of Standard Atomic Weights—an exercise in consensus

The present Table of Standard Atomic Weights (TSAW) of the elements is perhaps one of the most familiar datasets in science. Unlike most parameters in physical science whose values and uncertainties are evaluated using the “Guidelines for Uncertainty in Measurement” (GUM), the majority of standard atomic-weight values and their uncertainties are consensus values, not GUM-evaluated values. The Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) regularly evaluates the literature for new isotopic-abundance measurements that can lead to revised standard atomic-weight values, A r (E) for element E. The Commission strives to provide utmost clarity in products it disseminates, namely the TSAW and the Table of Isotopic Compositions of the Elements (TICE). In 2016, it was recognized by the Commission that a guideline recommending expression of uncertainty listed in parentheses following the standard atomic-weight value, e.g. A r (Se) = 78.971(8), is not in accord with the GUM, which suggests that this parenthetic notation be reserved to express standard uncertainty, not the expanded uncertainty used in the TSAW and TICE. In 2017, to eliminate this noncompliance with the GUM, a new format was adopted in which the uncertainty value is specified by the plus-minus symbol, e.g. A r (Se) = 78.971 ± 0.008. To clarify the definition of uncertainty, a new footnote has been added to the TSAW. This footnote emphasizes that an atomic-weight uncertainty is a consensus (decisional) uncertainty. Not only has the Commission shielded users of the TSAW and TICE from unreliable measurements that appear in the literature as a result of unduly small uncertainties, but the aim of IUPAC has been fulfilled by which any scientist, taking any natural sample from commerce or research, can expect their sample atomic weight to lie within A r (E) ± its uncertainty almost all of the time.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Temperature-Dependent Configurational Entropy Calculations for Refractory High-Entropy Alloys

The cluster expansion formalism for alloys is used to construct surrogate models for three refractory high-entropy alloys (NbTiVZr, HfNbTaTiZr, and AlHfNbTaTiZr). These cluster expansion models are then used along with Monte Carlo methods and thermodynamic integration to calculate the configurational entropy of these refractory high-entropy alloys as a function of temperature. Many solid solution alloy design guidelines are based on the ideal entropy of mixing, which increases monotonically with N , the number of elements in the alloy. However, our results show that at low temperatures, the configurational entropy of these materials is largely independent of N , and the assumption described above only holds in the high-temperature limit. This suggests that alloy design guidelines based on the ideal entropy of mixing require further examination.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Comparison of effectiveness and energy use of airborne pathogen mitigation measures to meet clean air targets in a prototypical office building

Organizations such as ASHRAE and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have proposed guidelines for controlling infectious aerosols in buildings, which can be met through measures such as modified operation of the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system or incorporating air-cleaning technologies. However, more research is needed to understand the trade-offs between health, energy, and comfort aspects when designing measures for these guidelines. To address this gap, this paper presents an analysis using new models for air-cleaning technologies, including in-duct and in-room germicidal ultraviolet (GUV) systems and portable air cleaners (PACs). These models are incorporated into an existing prototypical office building model and six measures are designed to meet ASHRAE Standard 241 and CDC clean air targets: MERV 13 HVAC filtration, maximum outdoor air supplied to the building, PACs, and in-duct, upper-room, and whole-room GUV. The measures are simulated for an office building in a cool and humid climate compared against a baseline simulation using MERV 8 filtration. The results show that all measures, except for the maximum outdoor air case, can meet the ASHRAE 241 standard without significant impacts on energy or comfort. The HVAC system measures were not able to meet the CDC target with the default system sizing and lead to significant energy increases, while the in-room measures were able to meet the CDC target with small impacts on energy consumption. Finally, this paper consolidates the simulation findings and provides practical guidance for building operators to meet clean air targets while limiting energy and comfort impacts.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗